Every year, there are more discoveries that change the way we see history, and some of these are in places that were long considered to be fully documented. Whether it was a lack of knowledge or a finding completely out of the blue, our most well-known sites still yield discoveries that would have never been found if we hadn’t investigated further.

10 Acres Of Clothing In A Forest Outside A Concentration Camp

For 60 years, an enormous trove of concentration camp history remained missing. In 2015, a group of hikers in Poland made a shocking discovery: acres of discarded prison clothing and other articles related to a tragic location nearby. Near the forest where the unsuspecting tourists made their discovery was an infamous Nazi prison camp: Stutthof.

The most surprising part of the discovery was that most of the clothes were found in plain sight. The Stutthof death camp is now a museum and has a fairly large number of visitors and researchers who all overlooked the artifacts. No real sleuthing was needed; apparently, the forest was not explored since it became the sight of genocide during the Nazi reign.

All sorts of clothing articles were found: shoes, belts, pants, shirts, etc. Stutthof housed 110,000 prisoners throughout history, 85,000 of whom died there. Experiments on their body fat were used for soap production, which adds an ever more gruesome angle.

Apparently, their clothes weren’t worth keeping since they were dumped into the forest surrounding the camp, a fact many historians were not aware of. One fact was quite surprising: the prisoners’ shoes were leather, not wooden clogs as at most prison camps. No one who worked around the camp ever noticed the clothes, and there had been no rumors about them before their discovery.

9 Elaborate Man-Made Elevators At The Colosseum

For centuries, archaeologists have been puzzled as to the purpose of a series of tunnels creating a confusing labyrinth beneath the Roman Colosseum. Apparently, the tunnels were all carefully built to lead to more chambers in various ways. Ultimately, they led beneath the arena where trapdoors went into the fighting area. It is clear that they were built like this intentionally, and in 2011, after 14 years of research, their purpose was finally discovered.

According to German archaeologist Heinz-Jurgen Beste, the hypogeum (Greek for “underground”) served as an elaborate way for animals and warriors to appear from beneath the floor without being noticed by those in the audience. To put in perspective how effective the system was, during a spectacle by Emperor Trajan, 11,000 animals were put through the hypogeum and killed. It was a form of theatrical trickery that would be unmatched for centuries.

It had been there since the Colosseum was first completed in AD 80, but its original purpose was forgotten after the Roman Empire fell. Over the centuries, the hypogeum has seen various uses: a place to store hay, underground gardens, and stalls for businesspeople. Throughout this time, it slowly crumbled until Mussolini took power and had the tunnels cleared.

In 1996, archaeologists started to restore the tunnels. We now know just how intricate they were. They were operated by a series of levers, ropes, and pulleys that created almost impossible spectacles. Even today, many theaters are not as elaborate or creative as the Colosseum was with the hypogeum, which just goes to show how intelligent and clever our ancient ancestors really were.

8 A Cannibalized Body At Jamestown

Jamestown, Virginia, is known as the first permanent English colony in America. It is now one of the most revered historic spots in the United States, and many researchers still go there to unlock more secrets from that time.

However, in summer 2012, historians made a disturbing discovery in a hole that contained butchered horse and dog skeletons. They knew immediately that this hole had probably been dug during a severe famine, but what they found when they dug deeper only shocked them further.

The body was that of a 14-year-old English girl who had undoubtedly died in winter 1609. The winter was so harsh and the food supplies so low that it became known as the “starving time”. It was well-documented how far the colonists of Jamestown went. In 1625, George Percy, governor of Jamestown during the starving time, wrote a letter describing how colonists ate their horses, vermin, and even leather boots. He then went on to say that some had even dug up the dead in desperation.

The young girl found in 2012 was the victim of this starvation. There had been strikes to the back of her head to get to her brain, which would be the most desired tissue. The attempts were clumsy by whoever was trying to harvest her flesh. It was clear that the person had never done this before.

The details of her death are unknown. Was she murdered by another desperate colonist, or had she died of natural causes and been disturbed from the grave? We will probably never know.

7 A Mass Graveyard At Bedlam Asylum

“Bedlam” is now an offhand way of referring to insanity, but at one time, Bedlam was one of the most important mental asylums in the world. In centuries past, mental illness was virtually untreatable and those who were considered harmful were locked up at Bedlam.

It still has its infamous reputation due to the archaic treatments that took place there and the extremely poor conditions. But many have never thought about where the patients were later buried. In 2015, the answer was uncovered.

While digging near Bedlam Asylum at a location that would become the Crossrail’s Liverpool Street station, workers came upon a horrific sight: a mass grave filled with 30 skeletons. A headstone read only “1665,” and it became clear that this was a repository for victims of the Black Plague who had been isolated at Bedlam.

Since excavation first started, an estimated 3,500 corpses have been dug up, although historians estimate that a staggering 30,000 might be waiting to be discovered. This cemetery was in use for almost 200 years—from 1569 to 1738. It was unlike other cemeteries near Bedlam because it was mostly one body on top of another rather than individual graves.

It served as a burial place for the outcasts of English society: those without a religion, family members, or the financial means for a private burial. In 1665, during a particularly infamous outbreak of the plague, it served as a dumping ground for victims of the plague because other cemeteries were simply overflowing.

6 Buried Gas Chambers In Poland

While digging up a road near Sobibor concentration camp, archaeologists made a shocking discovery: a series of gas chambers that had been hidden since the end of World War II. The chambers have a sad history: They were the place of death for an estimated 250,000 Jews who were imprisoned at Sobibor. The archaeologists also found personal items of the victims.

Although the chambers had been buried under an asphalt road, archaeologists used the remaining outline to estimate the size of the chambers and the number of victims that could have been inside. Personal items like a wedding ring were found nearby—even more evidence that the Nazis had tried to cover up before they were defeated.

As Sobibor was efficiently destroyed and few prisoners survived there, we have little information about the camp when compared to others. Eight gas chambers have been discovered, and it took just 15 minutes to kill the victims inside when the chambers were operating. Supposedly, the Germans bred geese to drown out the screams of the victims. The entire concentration camp was demolished after a prisoner uprising in 1943, so the gas chambers are all that remain.

5 Baby Remains At The Yewden Villa

Almost 100 years ago, archaeologists discovered Yewden Villa, a massive Roman villa underneath the English town of Buckinghamshire. For whatever reason, the old archaeologists covered up the villa’s most gruesome relics along with the ruins. They soon forgot about the find, and it took a century for its possessions to be rediscovered.

When Dr. Jill Eyers was going through a museum storeroom in 2008, she unexpectedly rediscovered the remains of 97 infants that had been found at Yewden Villa. There have been many theories about why the infants were found there. From testing on the remains, the infants probably died between a 50-year period from AD 150 to AD 200. Eyers’s theory is that the villa was used as a brothel and that the children, as sickening as it sounds, were simply abandoned by their mothers.

Another theory is that the villa was used in rituals performed by a mother goddess cult and that the infants were a part of it. They were probably stillborn, and their mothers took them to beg the goddess of fertility for healthy children.

Cut marks discovered on the bones could indicate many things: human sacrifice, defleshing before burial, or even dismemberment of the fetus to save the life of the mother. As the Yewden Villa is now buried beneath a field, we won’t know the reason for the infants’ burial there until the site is excavated again.

4 An Aristocratic Burial Ground At Stonehenge

Stonehenge has long mystified the world. A prehistoric monument in England, it is one of the most iconic historical sites in the world. Despite its prominence, we are still mostly in the dark as to its true purpose. Why was it built? Who built it? How was it built? All these questions have multiple different answers, but a discovery this year might shed some light.

During an excavation of a chalk pit near Stonehenge known as Aubrey Hole 7 (there are 56 such pits around Stonehenge), archaeologists discovered a burial ground that held the bodies of 14 females and 9 males, all of whom were at least young adults. It has long been theorized that Stonehenge might be some sort of cemetery for highly respected, aristocratic individuals of the time.

Finding prehistoric cemeteries is extremely rare. Only the most powerful people of the time would have been buried with such respect. The discovery at Aubrey Hole 7 has been dated as far back as 3000 BC, and the fact that women were buried in the same place as men has changed historians’ perspective of gender roles of the time. It shows that women were treated with the same respect as men, something not seen by most cultures of the time. Along with this revelation, it also proves the theory that Stonehenge served as a sort of monument for the dead.

3 Proof Of A Mythical War At An Incan Fortress

In the mountains of Ecuador, the 500-year-old Incan fortress Quitoloma stands as the only survivor of a 17-year war that was long forgotten by historians. The fortress is well-equipped for battle: It contains areas for weapons storage along with 100 structures for occupation. It is sturdy and built from solid stone. From this fortress, historians have pieced together 19 others belonging to the Inca that were used against their adversaries the Cayambe.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish conquistadors spoke of a war between the Incas and their neighbors which has been regarded by most as nothing but folklore. However, with the discovery of the multiple fortresses, many are reconsidering their opinions on the matter.

The Incan fortresses tower 3,000 meters (10,000 ft) in the air and were built from stone while the Cayambe fortresses were built from a strong volcanic rock known as cangahua. The fortresses were long forgotten, but their proximity fits the Spanish descriptions of a war that was particularly brutal and lasted an incredible 17 years.

The fortresses were only recently discovered, so more excavation and study is needed. But as it stands, it is clear that the mythical war did indeed happen. However, within a few decades, both of the enemies would face the far superior Spanish forces who easily put them both into submission.

2 Decapitated Gladiators In Ancient London

In 1988, 39 human skulls were discovered at the London Wall—just a short distance from their future home, the Museum of London. They remained a mystery for 25 years while historians tried to determine in which year the skulls were buried and why these people were executed at all. It was found that they were Roman-era fossils, which puts them around the time of Britain’s Roman occupation.

The skulls have been dated from AD 120 to AD 160, and these people most certainly had gruesome deaths. For example, one skull showed signs of a brutal attack by dogs. Due to forensic advances over the years, it was found that all of the skulls displayed some kind of damage from a violent conflict.

Since decapitation was the most common form of execution for defeated gladiators, researchers determined that they were most likely just that. Near the area where the skulls were discovered, an amphitheater stood, which gives even more credence to the gladiator theory.

Disturbingly, the executed gladiators had their heads dumped into open pits, which explains why they were concentrated in single areas. They were left to rot, which explains why animals like dogs would eat their remains. The second century AD was one of the most peaceful times for Roman-era London, but it quite clearly wasn’t so peaceful for everyone.

1 2,000 Bones Beneath Oxford’s Museum Of The History Of Science

The Museum of the History of Science at Oxford does have bones, but they’re on exhibit, not buried beneath the museum. In 1999, the restoration of the museum led to an excavation of the basement, which was built in the 17th century. A stone well and two concrete pits were found, which museum historians had been unaware of. In the concrete pits, old artifacts were found, including chemical vessels and 2,000 bones.

Among the 2,000 bones, 15 humans were found, including three fetuses. Meanwhile, 800 animal bones identified as canine were also discovered. Why were these bones in the basement of the museum? The reason is actually very simple: They were needed for dissection.

In 1710, a German man named Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach recorded a dissection that he had attended in the basement of the Oxford museum. Known originally as Solomon’s House, it was built in 1683 and was supposed to be for experimental natural philosophy, of which dissection was a key part.

At the time, the only legitimate source of human bodies was executed criminals from the gallows. However, seeing the variety of ages among the bones (ranging from fetus to elderly), it seems that they may have been obtained illegally.

When bodies couldn’t be found, dogs or badgers were used. Interestingly, an African manatee was found and may have been put on display as a mermaid. Once the dissections were complete, the bodies were apparently dumped into pits beneath the museum and covered up.

Magic and superstition have been present in human societies since the dawn of our species, and ancient Rome was no exception. Some of us would like to believe that the advancement of education and scientific knowledge should be enough to keep superstitious beliefs in check, but many signs around us tell us that superstition is here to stay. Fortune-tellers, cult leaders, horoscope writers, and casino owners (to name a few) know this very well.

This list is about the powerful effect that magic and superstition had on some of the beliefs of ancient Roman society.

10 Magic, Superstition, And Medicine

Some of the medical knowledge in ancient Rome was strongly linked to magic and superstition. Pliny the Elder records a number of health tips that few of us would take seriously. Here are some examples. Do not try this at home without medical supervision. We take no responsibility for the outcome of the following recipes:

Drinking fresh human blood was believed by some to be an effective treatment for epilepsy:

“It is an appalling sight to see wild animals drink the blood of gladiators in the arena, and yet those who suffer from epilepsy think it is the most effective cure for their disease, to absorb a person’s warm blood while he is still breathing and to draw out his actual living soul.” (Natural History, 28.4)

For treating bruises and strains:

“Strains and bruises are treated with wild boar’s dung gathered in spring and dried. This treatment is used for those who have been dragged by a chariot or mangled by its wheels or bruised in any way. Fresh dung also may be smeared on.” (Natural History, 28.237)

If you want to enhance or suppress sexual performance:

“A man’s urine in which a lizard has been drowned is an antaphrodisiac potion; so also are snails and pigeons’ droppings drunk with olive oil and wine. The right section of a vulture’s lung worn as an amulet in a crane’s skin is a powerful aphrodisiac, as is consuming the yolk of five dove eggs mixed with a denarius of pig fat and honey, sparrows or their eggs, or wearing as an amulet a rooster’s right testicle wrapped in ram’s skin.” (30.141)

9 Magic, Superstition, And Pregnancy

Pregnancy in ancient Rome was the cause of considerable anxiety. It is estimated that the number of women who died as a result of childbirth was higher to the number of men who died at war. As a result, a deficit of women suitable for marriage was always an issue in Rome. It is therefore not surprising that there were a few tips on pregnancy circulating around Roman society. Pliny the Elder tells us that:

“[ . . . ] if someone takes a stone or some other missile that has slain three living creatures (a human being, a wild boar, and a bear) at three blows, and throws it over the roof of a house in which there is a pregnant woman, she will immediately give birth, however difficult her labor may be.” (Natural History 28.33)

“If one wishes a child to be born with black eyes, the mother should eat a shrew during the pregnancy.” (Natural History 30.134)

8 Shapeshifters

Many stories circulated among ancient Romans about people changing their shape into animals and other beings. Here is one of these tales. If you think the werewolf legend is relatively new, think again:

“We came to the tombs, and my friend went to do his business among the gravestones, while I moved off singing and counting the stars. Then, when I looked back at my companion, he had taken off all his clothes and laid them at the roadside. My heart was in my mouth; I stood there practically dead. He pissed in a circle around his clothes, and suddenly turned into a wolf. Don’t think I am joking: nothing could induce me to tell lies about this. [ . . . ] He began to howl and ran off into the woods. [ . . . ] then I went to pick up his clothes, but they had all turned to stone.” (Petronius Satyricon 62)

It would not be surprising if at least some people in Rome believed stories like this one.

7 Witchcraft

Long before medieval times, witchcraft was known to the Romans. There is a famous passage in Roman literature describing a grotesque ritual performed by witches who were looking to brew a love potion. They intended to use the potion to gain the heart of a man named Varus, who had resisted the love spells cast by the witches so far.

The details of this ritual are described by the Roman poet, Horace (Epodes 5), who lived during the first century BC: A boy of high birth was kidnapped by a clique of witches. They buried the boy in the ground up to his chin, and they placed some food in the ground close to him, but he was unable to reach it. The witches hoped to starve the boy to death and make his liver grow as a result of the hunger. The boy’s liver was a key ingredient to brew the love potion.

This account is fictional, but it shows the place that witches and their dark arts had in the imagination of some Romans.

6 Interpretation Of Dreams

Like almost all other cultures, some Romans firmly believed in the idea that dreams could forecast the future. In the second century AD, Artemidorus of Daldis wrote a work named The Interpretation of Dreams, compiled in five books. Some of the ways in which he interpreted the meaning of dreams are both specific and curious:

“Dreaming about turnips, rutabagas, and pumpkins presages disappointed hopes, since they are massive [vegetables] but lack nutritional value. They signify surgery and wounding with iron implements for sick people and travelers, respectively, since these vegetables are cut into slices.” (1.67)

“Dreaming that one is eating books foretells advantage to teachers, lecturers, and anyone who earns his livelihood from books, but for everyone else it means sudden death.” (2.45)

5 Reading Animal Entrails

Hundreds of techniques to foretell the future are recorded in ancient Roman documents. We know, for example, that sacrificing animals and trying to read the future by interpreting their entrails was practiced not only in ancient Rome, but also in many other cultures. This magical art was known to the Romans as haruspicy, and a person trained in this art was a haruspex.

Cicero (On Divination: 2.52) claims that Hannibal, the renowned Carthaginian commander who defied Rome in the Second Punic War, was an expert in this technique. While he was still a military advisor (before he became commander), he used to give advice to his superiors based on the messages he could read on the organs of sacrificed animals.

4 Astrology

Trying to predict events based on the position of the celestial bodies was also widely practiced in the Roman world. Some Roman emperors, including Tiberius, Domitian, and Hadrian, believed in divination and astrology and even had some degree of training in these arts. Cassius Dio (Roman History 57.15) claims that Tiberius had a man executed after he had a dream in which he was giving money to that same man. Tiberius believed that he had that dream under the influence of some sort of enchantment.

However, there is evidence that not everyone was persuaded by the astrologer’s claims:

“I am amazed that anyone could continue to put their trust in such people, when the falseness of their predictions is every day made clear by what actually happens.” (Cicero, On Divination: 2.99)

The love-hate relationship that Rome had with astrologers was expressed by Tacitus with his typical directness:

“Astrologers are treacherous to the powerful and unreliable to the merely hopeful; they will always be banned from our state, and yet always retained.” (Histories 1.22)

3 The Shield Of Mars

The Romans believed that the god Jupiter gave the very shield of the god Mars to Nula Pompilius (the second king of Rome). This relic was known as the Ancile. It was believed that if the Ancile was harmed in any way, so would the nation of Rome. In other words, the prosperity of Rome was dependent on the integrity of the Ancile. Therefore, it was decided that the safest place to keep this relic was the Temple of Mars.

The nymph Egeria advised the king of Rome to create eleven identical copies of the shield in order to confuse potential thieves and keep the shield safe. A body of priests known as the Salii were responsible for protecting the Ancile and, ultimately, the prosperity of Rome.

2 The King Of The Wood

A shocking ritual was recorded at the grove of the goddess Diana at Aricia, south of Rome along the Via Appia (the road connecting Rome with Capua), by the shores of Lake Nemi. The grove of Diana had a priest, known as Rex Nemorensis. Those who held the position were always fugitive slaves who became priests by murdering the acting priest. This was the accepted norm of succession for the priesthood of Diana. As a result, the Rex Nemorensis was always on alert, carrying a sword, waiting for the next candidate to challenge him, and fearing for his life. (Strabo, Geography 5.3). This practice is summed up by T. Macaulay:

“From the still glassy lake that sleeps
Beneath Aricia’s trees—
Those trees in whose dim shadow
The ghastly priest doth reign,
The priest who slew the slayer,
And shall himself be slain”

The exact justification for this succession rule is not fully understood, and it has sparked the imagination of many historians and writers. Nobody has explored this issue in more depth than Sir James George Frazer, who used the institution of the Rex Nemorensis as a starting point of his colossal anthropological work The Golden Bough: a Study in Magic and Religion, published in 1890.

1 Imaginary Beasts

Ancient Roman writers left a number of accounts describing several imaginary animals. Interestingly, most these beasts were exotic, coming from remote locations.

Pliny (Natural History 8.75) describes a half-human, half-horse animal named the hippocentaur. According to his doubtful account, he personally saw one of these beasts shipped from Egypt to the emperor Claudius, preserved inside a container filled with honey.

Aelian also describes some peculiar species of one-horned donkeys and horses found in India. Drinking vessels made out their horns had a unique property: If poison was poured into them, the horns would cancel the effect of the poison, acting as an antidote. (On Animals 3.41).

Aelian (On Animals 9.23) reports the existence of the amphisbaena, a snake with one head at both ends:

“When it is going forward, it uses one head as a tail, the other as a head, and when it is going backward, it uses its heads in the opposite manner.”

Aelian fails to explain what relevance the terms “forward” and “backward” may have when applied to a being with a head at both ends, but we get his point.

Except for scientists who experiment on lab rats, many people scream at the sight of these creatures or try to kill them. The blanket perception is that rats are useless vermin. However, the truth is more unusual.

These highly intelligent mammals have jobs in the military and medical sectors. They rescue their fellow rats and communicate over the Internet. They even regret things and teach their kids about dangers. In the end, they may survive Armageddon and dominate the world.

10 Distinct City Groups

During a 2018 study, four cities were chosen and 150 rats were captured from each. They came from Vancouver, New York, New Orleans, and Salvador, a city in Brazil. Each rat’s tissue sample was analyzed for 15,000 genetic markers.

The results confirmed a theory from the previous year when it became clear that a commercial district in Manhattan divided most of New York’s rats. The suspicion that the separation created two genetically distinct groups was proved when the 2018 study confirmed “uptown” and “downtown” rats.^[1]

The three other cities also showed DNA divides. In New Orleans, rats from the French Quarter and the Lower Ninth Ward were genetically distinct. They were separated by a canal. A valley split Salvador rats into a northern and a southern group. A Vancouver pocket was isolated by highways.

The report also found that rats from smaller areas preferred their own. Especially in New York and New Orleans, rats with related DNA were more apparent within 460 meters (1,500 ft) of one another.

9 Males Without Y Chromosomes

In mammals, gender is determined by the X and Y chromosomes. Offspring inherit one from each parent. An XX combination creates a female, and XY is needed for a male.

However, Japan’s Amami spiny rat is the exception. The species has no Y, and yet some are born as fully functional males. Even more odd, both genders only have a single X chromosome.^[2]

A 2017 study took stem cells from a female rat’s tail and injected them into mouse embryos. Female mice carried these to term, and the pups revealed an interesting clue. The spiny rat’s stem cells had adapted to both ovaries and testes. The latter was a world first.

In the past, sperm could not be grown from female stem cells due to a lack of the male Y chromosome. However, spiny cells proved exceptionally flexible and sensed when they were in ovaries or testes.

Researchers also found that the male rats kept their other male sex genes. When the Y was mysteriously erased, these jumped to other parts of the genome and the remaining X.

8 They Inherit Fear

A 2014 experiment showed that rats taught their offspring about danger. Scientists first conditioned adult females to dread the scent of peppermint. Every time the aroma was released into the rat’s enclosure, she received a mild electric shock.

The herb-fearing rats later became mothers, which initiated the second phase of the experiment. No more shocks were involved. But when the peppermint smell came, the adults stressed and their bodies released a certain smell.

The pups noticed both smells and their moms freaking out. Soon, they learned to fear peppermint, too, even though they were never shocked. They were simply taught by their mother’s behavior that this change in their environment was a danger.^[3]

They understood this lesson within a few days. Soon, the pups even feared peppermint without their mother’s presence. This infant perception of danger could be one of the things that make rats such a successful species.

7 Regretful Rodents

In 2014, researchers built a restaurant for rodents. This was to test if rats could feel regret. The “restaurant” was a circular enclosure with rooms. Each chamber dispensed food after a certain waiting period. The rats were trained to gauge the different waiting times from chimes.

Some rats were willing to wait an hour for their favorite dish. Less patient individuals decided on a shorter time and grabbed the next-best meal. Since they could not reverse their decisions, this left some room for regret.

Researchers found that rats which chose the worse deal often glanced back at the room they skipped (holding their favorite snack and longer waiting time). At that moment, brain scans revealed a curious thing.

As the animals looked back, their brains showed what researchers analyzed as “a representation of entering that restaurant—not of the food they missed.” This was the first evidence that animals other than humans could regret a choice.^[4]

6 Bomb Squad Rats

In Mozambique, being an African giant pouched rat can get you special training. These cat-sized critters can solve one of the country’s deadliest problems—land mines. When a young rat is interested in this career path, it enters a Belgian organization called Apopo. There, it receives nine months of training with lots of yummy food rewards until it can detect the scent of explosives.

Once ready, they go out into the field with mine-removal experts. When a pouched rat smells a mine, it scratches at the ground. This alerts its handler, who is at a safe distance.

The rats are in no danger—they are simply too light to trigger the mines. Additionally, they are so good at their jobs that they can clear an area in just 30 minutes. It would take experts three days to sweep the same place with metal detectors.^[5]

Mozambique was rigged with thousands of land mines during its 16-year civil war. Although the conflict ended in 1992, the explosives continued to injure and kill people. Thanks to a small army of rats, Mozambique will be land mine free.

5 They Could Rule The World

In the past, Earth experienced at least five mass extinctions. Most recently, the dinosaurs perished around 65 million years ago. This event allowed tiny mammals to take over the world.

In 2014, scientists held a thought experiment. They reviewed geological records, past extinctions, which species thrived, and how. The idea was to see which animals would likely survive the next great extinction and take over the world.^[6]

Drawing on the past, some clever calculations, and present species with Armageddon-resistant skills, the researchers identified the winner. Rats, sure, but no ordinary ones.

Mass extinctions have a way of beefing up the tiny underdog. Should rats emerge victorious after a global disaster, they could become massive in the absence of predators. Cats and pigs were also candidates, but the rodents had a proven history of surviving most environments and eradication programs. Humans did not make the cut.

4 Rats Detect Childhood TB

In 2016, tuberculosis (TB) killed 1.3 million people, including 130,000 children. TB is difficult to treat, but kids face an additional hazard. They cannot produce enough mucus and saliva to provide a proper sample. As a result, a child with TB has a 60–70 percent chance of testing negative. So, it appears as if the youngster does not have the disease when he actually does.

Doctors in Mozambique and Tanzania heard that other lung diseases often had distinctive smells, and this gave them an idea. Tuberculosis produces certain compounds which were used to train rats.^[7]

Traveling on motorbikes, the doctors collected samples from patients at local clinics. The rodents, African giant pouched rats, sniffed the samples to see how many they could identify as TB.

Normal tests on the same samples detected the disease in kids, but the rats found a large additional number that the doctors missed. The rate of positive identification jumped by nearly 40 percent. Although the animals’ accuracy dropped with adults, they still found more real TB cases than the usual tests.

3 Remote-Controlled Rats

Past studies have produced some impressive roborats. One study involved hooking up animals to a processor, and afterward, some could control a robotic arm with their thoughts.

In 2002, that experiment led to another unusual mix of computer and rodent—electrodes inside brains that steered remote-controlled rats. The animals received training in a weird way.

The electrodes rewarded them with pleasure. Within 10 sessions, they learned to follow directions. Researchers guided rats up ladders and trees and into dangerous areas—all by typing on a laptop. The animals performed correctly for up to an hour.

However, bioethics experts are not happy with the invasive implants and electronic control of another being’s will. Since the project was funded by DARPA, the US military’s research branch, some fear that this is the beginning of the militarization of nature. The researchers involved said that the roborats were created with search and rescue in mind.^[8]

2 They Have Empathy

Rats react to the emotions of other rodents. This is called emotional contagion. It is the same thing that sets off a group of small kids. One cries and the rest might start bawling, although they do not know why. Similarly, rats displayed pain or fear behavior when they sensed it in others.

In 2011, researchers wanted to see if rats had empathy. Emotional contagion could be viewed as a natural reaction, hinged on instinct, but empathy requires a more intelligent approach. The rat must recognize distress in another and then put aside its own fear to provide assistance.

To start with, pairs of rats were kept together for two weeks. This allowed them to bond. Eventually, one was locked inside a small transparent tube. At first, the free rat was cautious about the new development.

Before long, they repeatedly freed their trapped friends. (The tube could only be opened from the outside.) They ignored canisters that were empty or contained stuffed rats. When presented with containers holding tasty snacks and trapped rats, the free rats opened both types of containers and shared their snacks with their formerly trapped friends.^[9]

1 They Use The Internet

There are two rats that shared information over the Internet. One rodent lived in North Carolina and the other in Brazil. Scientists attached devices called brain-to-brain interfaces to the pair of rats, which allowed them to work together with the Internet as their link.

This achievement is remarkable. Although separated by thousands of miles, the rats shared sensory information and taught each other tricks. If one performed badly at a task, its partner appeared to change its behavior to help the other one succeed.

The rats received each other’s brain signals via tiny electrodes inside their skulls that changed neurological signals into an electronic version. In this manner, brain activity was swapped with a high level of success. They even collaborated on more complex tasks, proving that a direct, sophisticated link between brains was possible.

Near the end of the experiment in 2013, several rats on different continents were linked via the Internet. Despite transmission delays and noise, their brain activity still communicated with each other.^[10]

Every song arises from a unique inspiration. Some are instant classics, while others find unexpected success or must overcome critics to reach an audience. Whether the song was written by someone else or the singer themselves, the inspiration is usually something personal. And many of us seek to learn what inspired the lyrics to some of our favorite songs.

Each of these ten songs has a story as distinctive as its tune.

Related: 10 James Bond Theme Songs That Never Were

10 “Over the Rainbow”

MGM executives initially cut “Over the Rainbow” from The Wizard of Oz (1939) because they felt the opening Kansas scenes made the film too long and the song’s themes were too complex for its target audience: children. They also didn’t like Judy Garland singing in a barnyard. Generations of moviegoers can thank associate producer Arthur Freed for telling studio head Louis B. Mayer, “The song stays—or I go.” Mayer backed down, saying, “Let the boys have the damn song. Put it back in the picture. It can’t hurt.”

The melody came to composer Harold Arlen while driving down Sunset Boulevard. Later, when he and lyricist E.Y. Harburg were stuck for an ending, Ira Gershwin suggested the line, “Why, oh, why can’t I?” Why a question? Gershwin later explained, “Well, it was getting to be a long evening.”

“Over the Rainbow” won an Academy Award for Best Music, Original Song and became Garland’s signature number. Today, it tops the American Film Institute’s list of the 100 Greatest American Movie Music and was voted Song of the Century in 2000 by the National Endowment for the Arts.^[1]

9 “As Time Goes By”

Honored as #2 on AFI’s movie music list, “As Time Goes By” could have ended on the cutting room floor as well, despite its established popularity. Herman Hupfeld wrote it for a 1931 Broadway play, and Murray Burnett and Joan Alison featured it again in their 1940 anti-Nazi play Everybody Comes to Rick’s. Shortly after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Warner Bros. bought the rights to that play for the movie Casablanca (1942).

Filming was already completed when composer Max Steiner asked to replace “As Time Goes By” with a composition of his own that would earn him royalties. Producer Hal Wallis refused for his own financial reasons: Ilsa’s “Play it, Sam” scene could not be reshot because Ingrid Bergman was away on location and had cut her hair short for her next film, For Whom the Bell Tolls (1943).

Drummer Dooley Wilson did his own singing but faked Sam’s piano playing to match the live, off-camera performance of Jean-Vincent Plummer. When a musician’s strike prevented Wilson from recording a single in time for the film’s release, the studio re-issued Rudy Vallee’s 1931 version, which was again a hit. Steiner’s score was nominated for an Oscar, but the film’s unforgettable musical highlight was ineligible because it had not been composed directly for the screen.^[2]

8 “White Christmas”

As much as “White Christmas” resonated with the longing of American GIs and their loved ones during World War II, its own backstory is equally poignant. The song’s inspiration dates back to December 1937, when composer Irving Berlin, a Russian-born Jewish immigrant, was in Hollywood scoring films for 20th Century Fox while his wife, a devout Catholic, was home in New York City. Their separation over the holidays was particularly hard for Berlin because he was unable to accompany his wife on their annual visit to the grave of the couple’s infant son, who had died on Christmas Day in 1928.

Berlin tapped his personal pain to craft a secular holiday classic that touched anyone yearning for days that are “merry and bright.” Bing Crosby introduced “White Christmas” on a radio broadcast of the Kraft Music Hall on December 25, 1941. This Oscar-winning hit became the anchor of the movie Holiday Inn (1942) and inspired its own story in White Christmas (1954).^[3]

7 “Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas”

“Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas” demonstrates the value of a good rewrite. For the MGM musical Meet Me in St. Louis (1944), the team of Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane needed a song for Judy Garland’s character to comfort her little sister, played by Margaret O’Brien. According to Martin, he had a melody he liked but could not make it work, “so I played with it for two or three days and then threw it in the wastebasket.” Blane retrieved it and later recalled, “Thank the Lord we found it.”

But the song still needed serious help. The original lyrics began, “Have yourself a merry little Christmas. It may be your last. Next year, we may all be living in the past.” The verse became gloomier still. Garland protested, “‘If I sing that, little Margaret will cry, and they’ll think I’m a monster.” The revision used in the film struck a perfect balance between wistful and hopeful.

Garland’s single was a hit, and the song would be covered repeatedly, including by Frank Sinatra in 1947. For a second release ten years later, Sinatra asked the composers to make yet another change, saying, “The name of my album is A Jolly Christmas. Do you think you could jolly up that line for me?” So, in the Sinatra version, “From now on, we’ll have to muddle through somehow” became “Hang a shining star upon the highest bough.”^[4]

6 “Moon River”

Henry Mancini composed this haunting ballad for Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961) with Audrey Hepburn’s limited vocal range in mind. Its simple, one-octave tune in the key of C was titled “Blue River” until lyricist Johnny Mercer recalled an earlier song by that name. To preserve the rhythm, he swapped “moon” for “blue,” both one-syllable words with the same vowel sound.

After a preview screening of the film, a Paramount studio executive reportedly said, “I love the picture, fellas, but the f***ing song has to go.” To which Hepburn replied, “Over my dead body!” The song stayed, won an Oscar, and today ranks #4 on the AFI list. Of its hundreds of covers, Hepburn’s version remained Mancini’s favorite.^[5]

5 Theme from Star Trek

In 1953, Gene Roddenberry left his job with the Los Angeles Police Department to become a freelance TV writer. He sold scripts to shows including Highway Patrol, Dr. Kildare, and Have Gun, Will Travel before developing his own project, Star Trek (1966–1969). He also wrote words to the series’ theme song that were never intended to be sung.

Seven weeks after composer Alexander Courage sent an instrumental version of the theme to the Library of Congress, Roddenberry submitted a second score with his own sappy lyrics handwritten underneath the notes. By exploiting a clause buried in the composer’s contract, Roddenberry guaranteed himself 50% of the royalties whenever the theme was used, even as an instrumental. Outraged at having his own payoff cut in half, Courage never worked on the show again as long as Roddenberry remained its executive producer.

In the book Inside Star Trek, Roddenberry is quoted as admitting that he thought at the time, “I have to get money somewhere. I’m sure not going to get it out of the profits of Star Trek.” He had no way of knowing at the time that Star Trek and its theme would live on for generations in syndication and movie adaptations.^[6]

4 “People”

Composer Jule Styne and lyricist Bob Merrill wrote more than fifty songs during the development of a Broadway musical about comedian Fanny Brice to be called A Very Special Person. Their first try at a title song evolved into “People,” and the show became Funny Girl. Styne wanted the little-known Barbra Streisand for the lead, even though she was not the star the producers had in mind. Looking back in 1977, Styne explained, “I wondered how I was going to get this little girl who was singing down in the Village in the show when they already had Anne Bancroft. So I wrote the toughest score. Only Barbra could sing it.” After Bancroft heard the music, she agreed.

During out-of-town tryouts, then-director Garson Kanin thought “People” wasn’t right for the character or the moment and wanted it cut. Then, Columbia’s release of it as a promotional single in January 1964 gave Streisand her first Top 40 hit. Before Funny Girl’s triumphant Broadway debut two months later, other songs and directors would come and go, but “People” remained and became a showstopper.^[7]

3 “Sympathy for the Devil”

The Rolling Stones’ 1968 album Beggars Banquet opens with “Sympathy for the Devil,” a blazing catalog of humankind’s record of inhumanity. Mick Jagger wrote both the words and music, inspired by a Soviet-era satirical novel and the political and social turmoil of the 1960s. As he stated in its music video, he had to “figure out if it was a samba or a goddam folk song.” Over the course of thirty takes, the tempo increased, African percussion instruments were added, and Keith Richards introduced the driving rhythm.

During the album’s recording session in the summer of 1968, a more historically significant change occurred. Jagger’s original version had the line, “I shouted out, ‘Who killed Kennedy?’” After Senator Robert F. Kennedy was also assassinated on June 6, Jagger magnified the song’s power by updating “Kennedy” to the plural.

At least as far back as 2006, the Stones dropped the entire “Kennedys” verse at a benefit concert for Bill Clinton’s 60th birthday, as captured in Martin Scorsese’s documentary Shine a Light (2008). When Jagger was asked about the omission after the film’s premiere, he replied coyly, “Did I leave that out? That song is so long, I always cut a verse. I guess it must’ve been that one.” The verse was also missing during the Stones 2024 tour.^[8]

2 “Raindrops Keep Fallin’ on My Head”

When director George Roy Hill wanted a contemporary sound for his offbeat western Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969), he hired pop music duo Burt Bacharach and Hal David, known for hits like “Walk on By,” “What the World Needs Now is Love,” and “The Look of Love.” As a guide for scoring the playful Paul Newman-Katharine Ross bicycle sequence, Hill told them he had edited it to Simon and Garfunkel’s bouncy “The Fifty-Ninth Street Bridge Song (Feelin’ Groovy).” Bacharach contributed the tune and the title, saying later, “Even though [lyricist] Hal tried to change it, we never came up with a thing that felt as good.”

After Ray Stevens, best known for comedy songs, declined due to a project conflict, the song was offered to another client of Stevens’ agent, B.J. Thomas. The day the soundtrack was cut, Thomas had just come off tour with a bad case of laryngitis and struggled through five takes. Bacharach found Thomas’s raspy voice to be “authentic,” but studio executives deemed the song “too risky and unconventional.”

Two weeks later, in full voice, Thomas recorded the song for release. The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart for four weeks. Bacharach and David took home an Oscar for Best Music, Original Song.^[9]

1 Theme from M*A*S*H

For his dark comedy film M*A*S*H (1970), director Robert Altman insisted that the background song during the fake suicide of despondent dentist “Painless” Waldowski be called “Suicide Is Painless” and that it be the “stupidest song ever written.” Noted movie composer Johnny Mandel recounted later that when he came up empty on the stupid requirement, Altman told him, “All is not lost. I’ve got a fifteen-year-old kid who’s a total idiot.” Young Mike Altman quickly cranked out four verses and a chorus, which Mandel set to music.

Altman liked the melody so much that he used it over the movie’s opening credits as well, and the instrumental version was also featured on the long-running TV series. The song hit #1 on the UK singles chart and was covered by artists as different as Marilyn Manson and the late jazz pianist Ahmad Jamal. During an appearance on The Tonight Show in 1981, the senior Altman told Johnny Carson he had been paid $70,000 to direct the film, but as of that time, his son had earned more than one million dollars for his half of the music royalties.^[10]

You would think that any child actor who got their start on a high-profile Disney Channel would just remain in the business for their entire lives. In fact, many of them have! Demi Lovato, Raven Symoné, and Selena Gomez come to mind. (Not to mention the likes of Britney Spears and Justin Timberlake from a generation before that, too.) After all, getting a start like that as a young kid would line a person up for untold riches, fame, and adulation for the rest of their lives, right?

But interestingly, not every Disney Channel alum decides to stay in the business. In fact, many former child stars quickly check out of Hollywood altogether! And yes, this even includes stars you know very well—and maybe even stars that you grew up watching on television! In this list today, we’ll take a fascinating look at the life paths of ten of those stars. These ten former child stars rose to fame on the Disney Channel. But when they got to the pinnacle of their young careers, they all decided to go do something else instead. These are their stories…

Related: 10 Actors Who Turned Down Movie Roles and Regretted It

10 Ashlie Brillault

Actress Ashlie Brillault grew up playing the character of Kate Sanders on the Lizzie McGuire series. But as she aged out, she eventually decided that acting wasn’t for her. So, instead, she went off to college after filming for the show wrapped up. She attended California State University Long Beach, where she studied political science and government. After graduating, she matriculated to the University of Denver to get a degree in law.

Ever since then, she’s been working happily in the legal world! She got a job as a lawyer right out of law school and eventually worked her way up to becoming a partner in the law offices of David Givot back in southern California. She reflected on her desire to do something bigger than television, too. “My ultimate goal is to work on issues related to criminal justice reform,” she said once in a 2015 interview. It seems like she’s done just that!^[2]

9 Clayton Snyder

Back in the day, Clayton Snyder played the iconic heartthrob Ethan Craft on Lizzie McGuire. However, just like Brillault, he decided to take a break from acting once he got to the end of his high school days. Instead of continuing on in show business, he instead went off to college at Pepperdine University in Malibu. And from there, he became a very good water polo player. So good, in fact, that he actually played it professionally for a time in Italy after graduation! Then, he transitioned into a full-time career in real estate. And he’s been selling homes ever since!

To him, the funniest part of his life now is when a homebuyer suddenly recognizes who he is and where they know him from. “We’ve had plenty of clients where halfway through showing them homes, they’re like, ‘My wife and I just found out who you are, and we can’t believe it!’” he told E! News about his two worlds sometimes coming together. “But that makes me feel good because I know that’s not why they’re working with me. It’s the best of both worlds, where they have the fun of realizing that, but their actual entry point was because of the work that we do.”^[2]

8 Nick Spano

Nick Spano rose to fame as a child star by playing the older brother Donnie on Disney’s Even Stevens sitcom. After that show wrapped, he tried his hand at a few more television series, too. But eventually, he grew tired of the acting grind. So he opted to go to UCLA for college. After graduating, he went into business—opening up a spa as well as a market management firm. Then, in 2015, he pulled another major career switch by opening up a coffee house-slash-restaurant in Los Angeles called Re/creation Café. There, he hosts community art shows and other social events for locals.

“Re/creation Café is a creative community space and eatery,” he once explained to the local news outlet VoyageLA. “It’s a place where people come to play and connect through good food, art, and music. Our goal is to get people (specifically adults) playing again. There really is nothing out there like Re/creation at this time. We are known for our events, such as Paint Social, Play, Goddess Celebration, Rave on Wheels, Yamashiro Night Market, and Love is Blind, but the cafe is something different.” Well, good for him. It sounds like he’s found what he is meant to do after all that child acting!^[3]

7 Kay Panabaker

Kay Panabaker’s whole life was devoted to the Disney Channel during her childhood. She appeared on several different shows, including Phil of the Future, Life Is Ruff, and Read It and Weep. But then, in 2012, she stepped away from acting for a bit to go to college. And she never returned!

She first went to UCLA to study zoology. After finishing there, she transitioned to Santa Fe College in Florida in an animal husbandry program. Now, she’s back to working with Disney—but not in the way you might be assuming! In her adult life, Kay actually works with various wild animals at Disney’s Animal Kingdom in central Florida. So she’s still in the Disney family… just not anywhere close to being on screen!

“Looking back, finding my true passion was worth all of the extra time,” Panabaker once told Naperville Magazine about her slow move to finally work with animals rather than keep on with her acting career. “I work with some of the most incredible people who inspire me to work harder and make a bigger difference in the world. That aspect was missing in my previous career and is something that feeds my soul in my current line of work. I love it when I leave work and have felt like I was able to inspire and make a difference, even if it was just one person that day. I don’t earn a fraction of what I used to, and yet, I couldn’t be happier.” We love to hear that!^[4]

6 Amy Bruckner

Amy Bruckner got her start on the Disney Channel when she appeared as a cast regular on Phil of the Future. In that show, she played Phil’s younger sister, Pim Diffy. She was there for the show’s entire run, and she became a well-known star to millions of young people who quite literally grew up watching her on television. However, when it came time for her to grow up, Amy wanted to do something totally different. Always precocious and forever a great public speaker, the law was what called her name!

After wrapping the series, Bruckner matriculated to New York University. There, she studied human rights and feminist theory. Then, after graduation, she returned to Los Angeles and attended UCLA School of Law. Now, she works at a law firm in Los Angeles that represents movie studios, television networks, production companies, and other entities. So, she’s still in entertainment! Just at a much higher level than as a child actor. Oh, and one more tidbit: she goes by Amelia now rather than Amy. Clearly, her adult life has come full circle and is far different from who she was as a child!^[5]

5 Jennifer Stone

Jennifer Stone was a star on Wizards of Waverly Place opposite Selena Gomez. On the show, she played the best friend of the main character, Alex—a girl named Harper. But after the show ended and Gomez transitioned into super stardom as a pop music sensation, Jennifer took a very different route. She gave up acting, went to school, and eventually decided to become an emergency room nurse! That decision came about after she was diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes in her own personal life. She became interested in medicine and decided that she wanted to help other people along the way.

“Regardless of your background, circumstances, choices, we’re all very much the same—and acting gives you that gift,” Stone reflected once on her acting career in an interview with Deadline about her choice to go into the nursing profession. “In nursing, you come across so many different kinds of people that to be able to view people that way is such a gift.”

She continued from there: “For so long, I’ve developed characters and just explored human nature and what makes people, people. I think it strengthens your sense of empathy and it strengthens your area of questioning why people do what they do. It also leads me to an understanding that people are very much the same.” What an amazing realization. We love to see it—a child star who turned out perfectly well-adjusted and is doing something for the betterment of society^[6]

4 Morgan York

Morgan York made a name for herself at a very young age when she landed a role opposite Miley Cyrus on Hannah Montana. But television didn’t turn out to be everything she wanted as she got older. At some point, the job became more of a job and less of a fun endeavor as she aged out of her youngest years. So she moved on. After acting, she pursued a career in literature. Today, she works at a publishing house. She is even hoping to become a published author herself at some point in the future!

Looking back on her short but successful acting career as an adult, York once explained her reason for transitioning out of the industry in a TikTok video: “I started acting when I was 9, and from the beginning, my mom told me, ‘The second this becomes not fun, or you want to stop, you can stop.’ I never expected it to be a lifetime thing. I even remember as a kid trying to imagine myself as an adult actor and just not seeing it.”

She wasn’t done there, either. The former child star continued with more about her decision to walk away from acting: “It wasn’t fun anymore. My passion for acting did not outweigh all the costs, like all the time you have to spend away from loved ones on sets and the constant scrutiny from people watching you.” Honestly, that sounds like a very mature and sensible decision to us.^[7]

3 Daniel Lee Benson

Daniel Lee Benson has had quite the road after quitting acting. He played Zeke on Wizards of Waverly Place. After the show wrapped, he initially decided to walk away from the world of theater and television. However, as he aged into being a full-grown adult, he began to receive messages threatening blackmail. That’s because leaked pictures of himself in suggestive photos were being spread online and posted on adult websites. For a long time, Benson tried desperately to scrub all that content from the internet. But the pictures just kept getting passed around and re-shared. And things got so bad that he almost lost his job!

Sick of continually dealing with that part of his past, Daniel decided to flip the switch on it and join OnlyFans. Amazingly, he built up a large following. And he also received a ton of support from fans who have continued to follow his, um, interesting second career. “I decided to stop fighting against it and, instead, go the other direction and completely lean into it and build out a page instead of letting these people sell my privacy,” Daniel shared in a very revealing TikTok about his unexpected career move. “I’ve met a lot of really great people in the adult entertainment industry, and it’s changed my life for the better.” Well, all good, just as long as he feels that positively about it, we suppose…^[8]

2 Tiffany Thornton

Tiffany Thornton was Demi Lovato’s closest co-star back in the days when the two of them were on Sonny with a Chance. But after that show ended, and Demi moved onto huge heights in the pop music industry, Tiffany shifted away from the Hollywood world. Instead of continuing to act, she left the screen and stage behind. And she became… a cheerleading coach! For a while, she worked as a recruiter at a Christian college in Arkansas. But she eventually found her way back to the thing that she really loved the most—cheerleading.

Ever since, she has been mentoring teenage girls and young women in a positive way while teaching them the value of cheerleading. “I absolutely love working here and seeing how God moves in the lives of these students,” Tiffany wrote of her decision to move into the world of cheerleading in a very appropriately peppy Instagram post back in 2017. “Plus, they come to my house a few times a semester for a big get-together where I make chicken spaghetti, salad, and banana pudding for dessert.” Wow. That sounds like a wonderful life!^[9]

1 Bridgit Mendler

When Good Luck Charlie made it to the Disney Channel, millions of viewers watched Bridgit Mendler steal the show as its star. But after the series wrapped, she took a complete left turn away from acting. And what she’s doing now will REALLY shock you! First, she attended the prestigious University of Southern California. Then, she got a master’s degree in humanity and technology from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Then, she went on to earn a PhD from MIT while simultaneously getting a law degree from the world-renowned Harvard Law School. We’re tired just thinking about all that!

After all those graduations came and went, Mendler then took a job at the Federal Communications Commission working in… wait for it… their Space Bureau! Yes, really! She “completely fell in love with space law” while there, as she told the media later. She came to love space so much that she eventually left that job and started her own company called Northwood Space. That company is tasked with building ground stations that can link up to satellite dishes that fly high in the sky, miles and miles above the Earth. And it’s already raised millions of dollars in early-stage startup funding!

“The vision is a data highway between Earth and space,” Mendler revealed to CNBC when they asked her about the company. “Space is getting easier along so many different dimensions, but still, the actual exercise of sending data to and from space is difficult. You have difficulty finding an access point for contacting your satellite.” Impressive to see that a Disney Channel alum turned to that level of work after teenage stardom. We love to see it!^[10]

Christmas is a time of traditions, from decorating trees and hanging stockings to sipping eggnog by the fire. While these customs feel timeless, many of them have unexpected origins that stretch back centuries. Ancient pagan rituals, clever marketing campaigns, and practical adaptations have all played a role in shaping the holiday traditions we know today.

Over the years, these practices have evolved, blending influences from various cultures and eras. From the generosity of Saint Nicholas inspiring Christmas stockings to the Yule log’s transformation from a pagan fire ritual to a dessert, the history of these traditions is as diverse as it is fascinating. Here are 10 surprising origins behind some of Christmas’s most beloved customs.

Related: 10 Surprising Traditions Protected by UNESCO

10 Mistletoe: A Pagan Symbol of Fertility and Peace

Mistletoe has long been associated with love and romance during Christmas, but its origins trace back to ancient pagan practices. The Druids revered mistletoe as a sacred plant, believing it had magical properties to ward off evil spirits and bring fertility. During winter solstice ceremonies, they would cut mistletoe from oak trees with golden sickles and use it in rituals meant to ensure a bountiful harvest and protection for the coming year.

The tradition of kissing under mistletoe likely stems from Norse mythology. According to legend, the goddess Frigg declared mistletoe a symbol of love after it was used to resurrect her son, Balder. This association with peace and affection carried over into Christmas celebrations centuries later. The Victorians popularized the custom of kissing under the mistletoe, turning an ancient fertility rite into a romantic holiday tradition.^[1]

9 Christmas Stockings: A Charitable Legend of Saint Nicholas

The tradition of hanging stockings by the fireplace originates from a 4th-century legend about Saint Nicholas. According to the story, a poor widower with three daughters could not afford dowries for his girls, leaving them destined for a life of servitude. One night, Saint Nicholas secretly dropped bags of gold coins down the chimney, which landed in the girls’ stockings that were hung by the fire to dry.

This act of generosity became intertwined with Christmas gift-giving, and the tradition of stockings spread through Europe. In the United States, stockings became a Christmas staple in the 19th century, thanks in part to Clement Clarke Moore’s famous poem “Twas the Night Before Christmas,” which describes Santa filling stockings with toys. Over time, stockings evolved from practical socks to decorative, oversized versions made specifically for holiday gifts.^[2]

8 Christmas Trees: A Fusion of Pagan and Christian Traditions

The Christmas tree as we know it today has roots in pagan rituals that celebrated evergreen plants during the winter solstice. Ancient Romans used evergreen branches in their Saturnalia festivities, and Germans in the Middle Ages decorated fir trees in honor of the solstice as a symbol of hope and eternal life.

The Christian adaptation of the Christmas tree is often credited to 16th-century Germany. Legend has it that Protestant reformer Martin Luther was inspired by the sight of stars shining through the branches of a fir tree and brought one indoors, decorating it with candles. The tradition spread across Europe and was popularized in England by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in the 19th century. When German immigrants brought the practice to America, it became an enduring symbol of the holiday season.^[3]

7 Eggnog: A Colonial Adaptation of a Medieval Drink

Eggnog’s origins date back to medieval Britain, where a drink called “posset” was made by curdling hot milk with ale or wine and adding spices. Wealthy families often included eggs and cream in their recipes, making posset a luxurious treat for special occasions. As the drink crossed the Atlantic with European settlers, it evolved into the eggnog we know today.

In colonial America, rum became the alcohol of choice for eggnog, as it was cheaper and more readily available than imported wine or brandy. The drink became especially popular during Christmas gatherings, where its richness symbolized abundance and celebration. Over time, eggnog became synonymous with holiday festivities, and its enduring popularity has even led to unique regional variations, such as Puerto Rico’s rum-and-coconut version, coquito.^[4]

6 Candy Canes: Religious Symbol or Sweet Marketing Ploy?

Candy canes are often said to represent religious symbolism, with the shape resembling a shepherd’s crook and the red and white stripes symbolizing Christ’s blood and purity. However, this interpretation is largely a modern invention. The earliest candy canes, created in 17th-century Germany, were plain white sticks of sugar candy given to children during nativity plays to keep them quiet.

The iconic red stripes and peppermint flavor were introduced in the 19th century, likely as a way to make the candy more visually appealing and marketable. By the early 20th century, candy canes became a staple of Christmas decorations and treats. Their enduring popularity owes as much to clever marketing as to their supposed religious connections.^[5]

5 Santa’s Sleigh: Borrowed from Norse Mythology

The image of Santa Claus flying through the night sky in a sleigh pulled by reindeer owes its origins to Norse mythology. In the pagan Yule tradition, Odin, the chief Norse god, was said to ride across the sky on an eight-legged horse named Sleipnir during the midwinter season. Children would leave offerings of food in their shoes for Sleipnir, and in return, Odin would reward them with gifts. This myth provided a foundation for the idea of a magical figure delivering presents, especially in regions where Norse traditions mingled with early Christian celebrations.

When Christianity spread across Northern Europe, Odin’s image merged with that of St. Nicholas, evolving into the figure of Santa Claus we know today. The sleigh and reindeer were later popularized in American culture through Clement Clarke Moore’s 1823 poem “Twas the Night Before Christmas,” which introduced the concept of Santa’s eight reindeer. Rudolph, the red-nosed reindeer, entered the story much later in 1939 as part of a marketing campaign by Montgomery Ward. This fusion of ancient mythology and modern commercial storytelling created one of the most enduring and magical symbols of Christmas.^[6]

4 Gift Wrapping: A Japanese Tradition Turned Western Staple

Gift wrapping, often viewed as a quintessentially Western holiday custom, has its origins in ancient Asia. In Japan, wrapping gifts in furoshiki cloths dates back to the 8th century, when the practice was both practical and symbolic, protecting the gift while adding a personal touch. Similarly, in China, silk cloths were often used to wrap gifts during significant occasions, with elaborate designs symbolizing good fortune and respect. These traditions reflected the importance of presentation in gift-giving long before the advent of paper wrapping.

In the West, modern gift wrap owes its popularity to a happy accident in 1917. Joyce and Rollie Hall, founders of Hallmark, ran out of traditional tissue paper during the Christmas season. They improvised by selling sheets of decorative French envelope lining paper, which quickly sold out. Recognizing the potential, the Halls began producing their own colorful, sturdy wrapping paper.

By the mid-20th century, gift wrap had become a staple of holiday celebrations, with vibrant designs, ribbons, and bows turning the act of giving into a visual spectacle. Today, wrapping paper is a multi-billion-dollar industry, though eco-conscious alternatives like reusable cloths are reviving the ancient traditions it originally replaced.^[7]

3 Advent Calendars: From Religious Devotion to Chocolate Treats

Advent calendars began in 19th-century Germany as a way for families to count down the days until Christmas. Early versions were homemade, featuring candles, chalk marks, or devotional images to mark each passing day. By 1908, Gerhard Lang, a German printer, introduced the first commercially produced advent calendar, complete with small doors that opened to reveal Bible verses or festive illustrations. These early calendars emphasized religious reflection and anticipation during the Advent season.

The modern chocolate-filled advent calendar emerged in the mid-20th century as manufacturers sought to appeal to children. British and American companies like Cadbury began mass-producing calendars with tiny chocolates behind each door, making the tradition more about indulgence than spiritual preparation. Today, advent calendars have expanded beyond chocolate, offering everything from miniature toys to luxury beauty products. This evolution reflects how the tradition has shifted from its religious roots to a fun, highly commercialized part of the holiday season.^[8]

2 Christmas Cards: A Victorian Innovation

The Christmas card tradition began in 1843, thanks to Sir Henry Cole, a British civil servant who wanted an easier way to send holiday greetings. Cole commissioned the first commercial Christmas card, which featured a festive family scene and the message “A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year to You.” These cards quickly caught on among the Victorian upper class as a fashionable way to convey holiday wishes without the need for lengthy handwritten letters.

The invention of affordable postage stamps, like the Penny Post in England, made sending cards accessible to a wider audience, and the trend soon spread across Europe and the United States. By the early 20th century, companies like Hallmark were mass-producing colorful and decorative Christmas cards, making them a staple of the holiday season. While email and social media have reduced the prevalence of traditional cards, they remain a cherished tradition for many, with millions still sent annually, often showcasing personal photographs or handmade designs.^[9]

1 The Yule Log: From Pagan Fire Ritual to Dessert

The Yule log tradition has roots in ancient Scandinavia, where it was a central feature of pagan midwinter celebrations. Families would select a massive log, decorate it with carvings or ribbons, and burn it in the hearth during the winter solstice to honor the Norse gods. The fire symbolized warmth, protection, and the return of the sun during the darkest days of the year. The ashes from the Yule log were often kept as charms to bring good luck and ward off evil spirits for the coming year.

When Christianity spread, the Yule log was incorporated into Christmas traditions, particularly in Northern Europe, as a symbol of light overcoming darkness. In the 19th century, French pastry chefs transformed the tradition into the bûche de Noël, a sponge cake rolled to resemble a log and decorated with frosting to mimic bark. This edible version of the Yule log became a popular Christmas dessert, blending ancient customs with modern holiday celebrations. Today, the Yule log exists both as a decorative symbol and a tasty treat, keeping its rich history alive in an entirely new form.^[10]

We’ve idolized our stars of stage and screen since man first entertained his fellow villagers. Newspapers, magazines, and the Internet give us so much gossip and information on our celebrities that we’re pretty sure we know everything there is to know about them. But sometimes, there is so much more behind a pretty face or a catchy tune.

It’s hardly surprising to hear that a musician has invented a guitar or a microphone that will improve their performance or that an actress has invented support pantyhose. However, many famous people actually had achievements far outside their entertainment field. A surprising number of celebrities have either patented inventions or made accomplishments that most people aren’t aware of, and here are ten examples.

10 Hedy Lamarr—Wi-Fi

Austrian-born film star Hedy Lamarr was a box office hit during the Hollywood Golden Age in the late 1930s and early 1940s. She was once called “the most beautiful woman in the world,” but there was much more to the bombshell movie star than a pretty face.

During World War II, Lamarr also worked on a torpedo guidance system which forms the basis of today’s Bluetooth and Wi-Fi communications. Patented in 1942 in conjunction with composer George Anthiel, their “frequency hopping” device was used during the war to prevent enemy forces from jamming radio-guided torpedoes, thus sending them off course.^[1]

Surprisingly, neither Lamarr nor Anthiel profited from their groundbreaking invention during their lifetimes.

9 Uri Geller—Radiation Shield

An Israeli-British illusionist, magician, and psychic, Uri Geller is best known for using “mind power” to bend spoons on live TV. His 40-year career as a paranormal entertainer has inspired both awe from fans and derision from skeptics. Offstage, there have been ongoing suggestions that he is a CIA agent.

However, a lesser-known feat is Geller’s invention of a radiation shield to protect cell phone users from the radiation they emit, which some contend to be harmful. Patented in 1998, the shield encases the device to protect users from the harmful effects of long-term exposure to radiation emissions from cell phones, walkie-talkies, and other handheld devices.^[2]–>

8 Jamie Lee Curtis—Baby Diaper

As the daughter of screen legends Tony Curtis and Janet Leigh, it is hardly surprising that Jamie Lee Curtis became a screen legend in her own right. She has featured in many movies during her career, including the famous Halloween series and with funnyman John Cleese in A Fish Called Wanda.

With such a busy acting schedule, it’s quite surprising that she found time to turn her hand to invention. Curtis actually patented a baby diaper during 1980s, aimed at improving the traditional disposable diaper design. Her nappy incorporates both the disposable diaper and a pocket containing disposable wipes, which are typically used at the same time.^[3]

Despite having the patent, Curtis refused to license the product to be sold until companies began producing environmentally friendly biodegradable products. The patent expired in 2007. In 2016, she filed for another patent pertaining to disposable diapers. This one is good until 2036.

7 Johnny Cash—Military Code Operator

Johnny Cash was one of the all-time top-selling music artists. The US country and blues singer and guitarist sold more than 90 million records worldwide. Most of us will remember the deep baritone voice of “The Man in Black” which made him famous, with songs such as “I Walk the Line” and “Ring of Fire.”

During the 1950s, Cash served in the US Air Force, assigned to the 12th Radio Squadron Mobile in Landsberg, Germany. As a military code operator listening in on Soviet Army transmissions, not only did Cash need to be highly skilled in Morse code, but he also needed to be pretty fluent in Russian. Cash was the first American to learn that Soviet premier Joseph Stalin was dead, having intercepted Russian communications.^[4]

6 Brian May—Astrophysicist

Brian May is best known as the long-haired lead guitarist and songwriter for the English rock band Queen. During his musical career, he has produced or performed on recordings which have sold hundreds of millions of copies worldwide. The most famous of these include the rock classic “We Will Rock You.”

When Brian May joined Queen in 1971, he was studying astrophysics and working on a thesis on “zodiacal dust.” His work studied the light reflection and velocity of interplanetary dust in the solar system.

He resumed his studies over 30 years later, completing his PhD in 2008. Since this time, May has continued both musical and scientific activities. His two worlds more recently collided with the release of his single “New Horizons” to celebrate the eponymous NASA spacecraft’s flyby of the Kupier belt object Ultima Thule.^[5]

5 Tony Bennett—Painter

American crooner Tony Bennett was a household name during the 1950s and 1960s with his mix of pop, jazz, and big band performances and has remained well-liked since. He got his “big break” when Bob Hope heard one of his nightclub shows and invited Bennett to share the stage with him during a performance at New York’s Paramount Theater.

Bennett made numerous hit records, with “I Left My Heart in San Francisco” possibly being the star’s most memorable song of all time. His 2011 chart-topping album Duets II (which included a duet with Amy Winehouse not long before her death) at the age of 85 made him the oldest artist to top the Billboard charts.

However, it’s not only music for which Tony Bennett is famous. Working under his original name of Anthony Benedetto, he is also an accomplished painter.^[6] Benedetto’s oil and watercolor pieces include a work commissioned for the 50th anniversary of the United Nations. His paintings are held in private and public collections around the world, including the Smithsonian Institution and the National Portrait Gallery.

4 Zeppo Marx—Heart Monitor

Zeppo Marx was the mute “straight guy” in the famous Marx Brothers slapstick comedies. While onstage, his role was to provide a foil to the over-the-top humor of his brothers, Groucho, Chico, and Harpo. In real life, he was said to be just as much of a clown. Many Marx Brothers fans would be surprised to know just what Zeppo did once he left the limelight. He pursued his lifelong passion for inventing things.

In 1969, Herbert Manfred “Zeppo” Marx was part of a team which patented a cardiac pulse rate monitor. The device was worn on the wrist and gave both an audible alarm and also vibrated if one’s heart rate exceeded a certain level, warning the wearer to cease activity. Marx also invented the Marman clamp, which is used today in various aeronautical applications.^[7]

3 Barbara Cartland—Gliders

Dame Barbara Cartland is famous for being the sugary pink English romantic fiction novelist as well as being the step-grandmother to Diana, Princess of Wales. During her career, she penned more than 700 novels, once putting out 23 in a single year, becoming one of the most prolific and also best-selling authors of the 20th century. At the time of her death in 2000, Cartland had sold more than 750 million books in 38 languages.

However, her world records for pumping out formula romance fiction were not Dame Cartland’s only achievement. Prior to her writing career, Dame Cartland’s contributions to early aviation actually helped Britain to fight the Nazis during World War II’s Normandy campaign.

During the 1920s and 1930s, Cartland was a daredevil glider pilot. Watching German stunts, where gliders would be towed out on short trips by airplanes, Cartland wanted to devise a means for a longer glider flight. Together with two air force pilots, she built her own glider, in which she made a 320-kilometer-long (200 mi) towed flight in 1931.

Cartland’s work led to the invention the long-haul troop-carrying gliders, which were pivotal in delivering troops and supplies into France during the war.^[8]

2 Mark Twain—Bra Straps

Mark Twain—born Samuel Clemens—has been called the “father of American literature.” The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn have been enjoyed by generations of readers around the world. However, despite his success as a novelist, bad business investments and social upheaval during the Civil War saw Clemens honing his practical skills to patent a number of inventions. These included the humble bra strap, which is still in use today.

His “Improvement in Attachable and Detachable Straps for Garments” was patented in 1871.^[9] It was originally intended to replace suspenders, which he absolutely hated, but the patent also mentioned vests, corsets, and shirts. The button-on elastic strap was later refined for women’s corsetry and modern-day bras. Twain also held a patent for a self-pasting scrapbook and a trivia game.

1 Gary Burghoff—Fishing Equipment

American actor Gary Burghoff is best known for his role as Corporal Walter “Radar” O’Reilly in the 1970s TV series M*A*S*H. Unlike the naive, innocent character he portrayed in the hit series, Burghoff also has a bent for inventing things.

He holds two patents for “Chum Magic,” a fishing device that draws fish toward the boat, as well as a fishing rod. Chum Magic automatically dispenses chum while attracting fish to the hook with a combination of lights and optional simulated seaweed.^[10]

He also patented a toilet seat-lifting device, if you are averse to visiting public toilets.

Lesley Connor is a retired Australian newspaper editor who provides articles for online publications and her own travel blog.

Have you heard of Ebola? It’s this disease from West Africa that only kills people there, right? Unfortunately, Ebola hemorrhagic fever, or the Ebola virus disease (EVD), has been on the planet for decades and might be coming soon to a country near you (if it hasn’t been there already). Ebola is known as a hemorrhagic fever, which plainly means that it can affect major organs, damage blood vessels, and cause severe illness in humans. The deadly hemorrhaging virus has been responsible for over 11,000 deaths reported between 1976 and 2016.^[1]

Recurrent in West Africa and with cases spread all over the world, it seems like EVD is not leaving us anytime soon. Most reported cases of EVD outside of West Africa have been from health workers who have worked in or been based in West Africa. These infections are a result of exposure to the disease from outside their home countries. As a result, the following ten places have had suspected or confirmed EVD cases over the past five years.

10 Lagos, Nigeria

In the summer of 2014, a Liberian-American man flew from Liberia to the city of Lagos in Nigeria. On arrival at the airport, he became violently ill and unfortunately died five days later. Two leading infectious disease doctors who treated him at the hospital also died. This initial EVD case infected a total of 19 people, with seven of them consequently dying.^[2]

The virus was eventually declared contained in October 2014 after 42 days with no new cases. In early 2018, the Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority urged Nigerian airports to be vigilant in detecting the virus and began thoroughly screening both passengers and crew arrivals from EVD-affected countries.

9 Gulu, Uganda

EVD cases were first reported in Uganda in 2000 and subsequently in 2012, 2014, and 2018. Due to their proximity, it is thought that the cases are linked to the EVD outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Sudan. Statistics show that there have been a total of 425 reported cases of EVD in Gulu, Northern Uganda, resulting in 224 deaths.^[3]

Since early 2018, there has been an increase in suspected EVD cases in Uganda around the northern and eastern regions. These reports are increasing due to the return of EVD in the DRC and Sudan and a rise in refugees fleeing violence. Many cases have been identified as Marburg disease, a “sister” viral hemorrhagic disease of EVD which presents similar patient symptoms, including internal bleeding and vomiting.

8 Mali

In 2014, an EVD-infected man from Guinea traveled to Mali and subsequently died. The infection spread to a further seven people, resulting in a total of six deaths.^[4]

All the same, the response of the health care agencies and Malian government has been championed. There is no need to worry about being infected, as in 2019, Mali has been classified by the UK’s Foreign and Commonwealth Office as a no-go area for citizens from other countries. Only essential travel is advised in most of the country.

7 Glasgow, Scotland

While working in Sierra Leone in 2014, a health worker became infected with Ebola.^[5] She has been noted as one of the most controversial EVD patients, as she was undetected on arrival at Heathrow Airport in London. The attending doctor checked her temperature and noted that it was normal. (It was actually high.) However, the patient soon deteriorated and became ill with the virus after arriving home in Glasgow, causing a nationwide panic. The attending doctor has since been suspended due to faking the details of the patient’s examination.

Since this period, after months of isolation, the patient has recovered from the virus. She has, however, returned to the hospital for rechecks, as the Ebola virus has returned in different parts of her body. Twice more, she was close to death but fully recovered. This case has been noted down in history as one of the worst Ebola cases in the West.

6 Dallas, Texas, US

In 2014, a Liberian who had been visiting family in Dallas, Texas, became unwell with the Ebola virus and soon died in a hospital. It emerged that on arriving from Liberia, he had lied on his airport admission documents about the fact that he had been in close contact with EVD-infected people in West Africa. Subsequently, two nurses who attended to him also contracted Ebola. Fortunately, both the nurses survived.

One of the nurses went on to sue the parent company of the hospital for a lack of personal protective equipment and health and safety measures. This subsequently resulted in a settlement.^[6] It is unknown if she is still working as a nurse.

5 New York, New York, US

An emergency doctor who returned from volunteering with Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) in Guinea in October 2014 became ill just days after getting back to New York. He first went to meet friends and went bowling in the city before locking himself in his flat when he became suspicious of his high temperature. He was then transferred to Bellevue Hospital in New York and put into isolation. Three people who were in close contact with him were also put into isolation for security measures. He eventually recovered after weeks in the hospital.^[7]

4 Sardinia

In 2015, a nurse returned to Sardinia after performing three months’ worth of humanitarian aid work in Sierra Leone with the charity organization Emergency. When he began to notice Ebola symptoms, he put himself into isolation and ultimately ended up under quarantine in a specialist hospital in Rome, Italy. The nurse was placed under the care of a doctor who had successful experience treating patients with Ebola and was eventually cured.^[8]

3 Madrid, Spain

A Spanish nurse was infected with EVD while treating an infected patient who had been flown into Spain from West Africa. The EVD patient was a Spanish priest who had been working in Sierra Leone.^[9]

The nurse survived. However, unfortunately, the priest later died. He was the second Spanish priest to die from EVD. The first had been working as a health worker in Liberia.

2 Cornwall, England

In 2014, A Nigerian security guard was tested for Ebola after visiting his family in Nigeria. He was placed in quarantine for three weeks, a fact which made headlines. The man said he felt victimized by the quarantine. Nigeria was declared Ebola-free only two days after his return.^[10]

A Nigerian citizen staying at a Cornish navy base in Cornwall was also quarantined after becoming ill. However, test results identified a rare form of the monkeypox virus, and he was transferred to London for treatment.

1 Saudi Arabia

In 2014, a 40-year-old man returned to Saudi Arabia from a business trip to Sierra Leone. He soon became ill with the Ebola virus and was placed in isolation. He had returned to the country to make a pilgrimage to Jeddah and was stopped so that the disease could not be spread to hundreds of other pilgrims.^[11] He is the only known Ebola victim to have traveled to Saudi Arabia.

World Health Organization experts state that Ebola can be passed through close and direct contact with infected people and through handling infected persons’ body fluids, such as blood and saliva. Health care staff are advised to follow strict precautions to reduce the risk of human-to-human transmission by following outbreak protocols. This includes using personal protective equipment when handling suspected or Ebola-positive patients and moving and disposing of the bodies of Ebola patients safely. Ebola is a deadly virus that can recur in different parts of the body months and years after initial infection and treatment.

So remember to wash your hands and watch out for any cuts if you’re traveling or working in any affected regions in Africa. Be sure to take precautions in countries such as Guinea, Sierra Leone, Libera, Nigeria, Sudan, the DRC, and Uganda during your travels.

Caroline Alice is a freelance writer and English language teacher with an interest in health and infectious diseases. Twitter @carolinealiceb

There are several misconceptions that many believe about Neanderthals. One is that they were dumb and uncivilized, which is actually untrue. This misconception has lingered on for so long that we use “Neanderthal” as a word for an uncivilized and unintelligent person. Neanderthals were even almost named Homo stupidus (“the stupid man”).

Today, we know Neanderthals were as smart as humans. But that isn’t the only surprising fact we have about the Neanderthals. Read on to find out about the interesting things we’ve dug up.

10 They Walked Upright

Neanderthals have often been depicted as slouched creatures with hunched backs, almost as if they were some other species of great ape. This depiction is wrong. Neanderthals walked upright and could have been better-postured than us. The myth of the hunched Neanderthal was started by Marcellin Boule, who believed Neanderthals were the missing link between humans and other great apes.

Researchers concluded that Neanderthals walked upright after creating a computer model of a Neanderthal skeleton. They noted that the neck and lower spine were curved. Both indicate an upright posture. Neanderthals would have walked with a hunch if their necks and spines were straight, as originally thought.

Researchers also saw that the wear marks on the skeletion’s hips indicated an upright posture. The sacrum (the bone in between the hip bones) was positioned just as it is with Homo sapiens. This could have only been possible if they had an upright posture.^[1]

9 Non-Africans Have Neanderthal Genes

Early Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa 70,000 years ago. At the time, Homo sapiens shared the Earth with two other species of humans: the Neanderthals and Denisovans. The Homo sapiens went toward Eurasia, where they met and interbred with Neanderthals.

Today, the descendants of these Homo sapiens (Asians and Europeans) have some Neanderthal genes in them. Scientists have discovered that the DNA of the average Asian and European is about two-percent Neanderthal. Sub-Saharan Africans have little to no Neanderthal DNA because their ancestors never left Africa and did not interbreed with Neanderthals.

Homo sapiens interbred with Neanderthals and Denisovans because they were all closely related. All three groups descended from Homo heidelbergensis.

A group of Homo heidelbergensis left Africa between 500,000 and 600,000 years ago. They split on the way. One group traveled to Western Asia and Europe and became the Neanderthals. The other group went toward Eastern Asia and became the Denisovans. The Homo heidelbergensis that remained in Africa eventually became Homo sapiens.^[2]

8 Homo Sapiens Could Have Hunted And Eaten Neanderthals

Early Homo sapiens seem to have had a thing for Neanderthal meat, at least if the hypothesis by Spanish anthropologists Policarp Hortola and Bienvenido Martinez-Navarro is true. The anthropologists speculate that humans feasted on Neanderthals as they migrated from Africa into Europe.^[3]

Researcher Fernando Rozzi of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique in Paris makes the same claims. He reached the conclusion after analyzing a Neanderthal jawbone. He and his team discovered that cut marks on the bone were made by humans.

If that wasn’t enough, early humans also probably used Neanderthal teeth to make necklaces. Other researchers, however, dispute the claims that Homo sapiens hunted and ate Neanderthals. They say early humans could have taken the jawbone from an already dead Neanderthal.

If true, the claims would support the hypothesis that humans hunted the Neanderthals into extinction. Some researchers believe this because Neanderthals went extinct around the same time early humans reached Europe.

7 They Painted

Neanderthals were artists. In fact, they made the oldest cave painting in the world. Around 65,000 years ago, some Neanderthal used a red pigment to etch something that resembles a ladder onto the walls of a Spanish cave.

Researchers have found two more paintings made by Neanderthals in two other Spanish caves. All three artworks were clearly the handiwork of a Neanderthal because Homo sapiens had not reached Europe at the time. The artworks indicate that Neanderthals had a similar cognitive abilities to humans.^[4]

6 They Were Almost Called Homo Stupidus

The first Neanderthal fossil (that was recognized to be an early human) was discovered in the Neander Thal (“Neander Valley”) in Germany in 1856. Neander Thal was named after Joachim Neumann, a 17th-century German minister who often roamed the valley. Neumann also wrote hymns, which he published under the pseudonym “Neander,” the Greek translation of Neumann (as in “new man”).

“Neander” and “thal” were soon slurred together to create the name “Neanderthal.” In 1904, the “h” was removed from “thal” because German does not have a “th” sound. However, some languages stuck with the “th,” creating a variant spelling of the name.

In 1864, William King suggested that the new human species be named Homo neanderthalensis, after the Neander Valley in which the fossil was found. Two years later, Ernst Haeckel suggested that we call the new human species Homo stupidus (“the stupid man”). Fortunately for the Neanderthals, King’s name was chosen because he proposed it first.

It is no surprise that Ernst suggested the name Homo stupidus for Neanderthals. We had poor knowledge of Neanderthals at the time—and probably still do now. Most people thought they were dumb creatures that couldn’t draw or use tools.^[5]

However, we now know Neanderthals could draw and use tools. They were also effective hunters, cared for their sick and elderly, and probably spoke some language. Neanderthals were just like Homo sapiens in many ways.

5 Neanderthals Inbred A Lot

Inbreeding was common among Neanderthals. In 2014, researchers discovered a 120,000-year-old Neanderthal toe bone in the Altai Mountains of Siberia. Analysis of its genome revealed that the Neanderthal had closely related parents. They could have been siblings, first cousins, or even an uncle and his niece.

The inbreeding hypothesis was further supported by a 50,000-year-old Neanderthal fossil unearthed in Vindija, Croatia, and 13 found in Sidron, Spain. All bones showed that the subjects descended from closely related parents.

As with modern humans, inbreeding among Neanderthals came with its own problems. Inbred Neanderthals had malformed body parts and bones. Many of their fossils had misshapen kneecaps and vertebrae. At least one Neanderthal retained a baby tooth into adulthood. Inbreeding made Neanderthals weaker and also less likely to reproduce than early Homo sapiens.

Unfortunately for us, Neanderthals transferred some of these unfavorable genes to early humans as they interbred. The genes are still present in some humans today, even though they have been largely suppressed. Some researchers speculate that inbreeding could have been one of the reasons the Neanderthals went extinct.^[6]

4 They Were Cannibals

While we are unsure whether early Homo sapiens ate Neanderthals, we know Neanderthals ate Neanderthals. Yes, Neanderthals were cannibals. The conclusion was reached after scientists analyzed the bones of five 40,000-year-old Neanderthals. The bones were broken the same way Neanderthals broke bones of the animals they hunted.

The reason Neanderthals feasted on other Neanderthals remains unclear. For a start, Neanderthals, early Homo sapiens, and even modern Homo sapiens are not nutritious. Neanderthals would clearly have preferred hunting bigger and more nutritious animals like horses, bison, reindeer, and mammoth that roamed nearby.

Researchers have speculated that Neanderthals cannibalized other Neanderthals for their marrow. This could be true, considering that the bones showed signs of being deliberately broken to reach the nutritious marrow inside. Researchers also suspect that Neanderthals could have turned to cannibalism for cultural reasons, or they just liked munching down on neighboring Neanderthals that strayed into their territory.^[7]

3 They Were Hunted By Other Animals

Neanderthals probably spent a huge chunk of their lives trying to avoid getting eaten. Besides their fellow Neanderthals and possibly humans, they were also hunted by wild animals of the day.

Researchers reached this conclusion after analyzing some Neanderthal fossils. They discovered the fossils had bite marks consistent with large carnivores. A fossil bone belonging to a young Neanderthal child clearly proved he was eaten by a large cat.

The analysis of the bone of another Neanderthal child from Ciemna Cave in Poland revealed that he was eaten by a large bird. The 115,000-year-old bone had holes indicating that it had passed the digestive system of a bird. However, researchers could not confirm whether the bird killed the child or fed on its corpse.

It should not be very surprising that Neanderthals sometimes ended up in the stomachs of other animals. Neanderthals and these animals were practically neighbors. Clashes would have been common, since they competed for the same sources of food and sought shelter in the same caves.^[8]

2 They Buried Their Dead

In 1908, two archaeologists unearthed the 50,000-year-old remains of a Neanderthal in a cave in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France. The anthropologists insisted that the Neanderthal had been deliberately buried there, even though nobody believed them at the time.

Archaeologists returned to the site in 1999. In 2012, a team led by William Rendu of New York University confirmed that the Neanderthal was truly buried there. Since then, we have found over 20 other sites scattered across Europe containing the remains of buried Neanderthals. The burials were often hasty, to prevent the body from being eaten by scavengers.

The discovery of burials among Neanderthals adds credibility to claims that Neanderthals took care of their sick and elderly. The Neanderthal found in the French cave had bone deformations and had lost lots of teeth. It is unlikely that Neanderthals would have bothered to bury somebody they refused to care for.^[9]

1 We Don’t Know Why They Went Extinct

We do not know why Neanderthals went extinct. We have already mentioned inbreeding and hunting by Homo sapiens as possible reasons, but those are only hypotheses. Other researchers speculate that Neanderthals went extinct after early humans infected them with deadly diseases after they migrated into Europe.

Other researchers think it was actually because Neanderthals couldn’t match the higher reproduction rate of humans. A more recent theory involves two ice ages.

Some 44,000 years ago, an ice age began and lasted for 1,000 years. This was followed by another ice age that began 40,800 years ago and ended 600 years later. Temperatures in Europe reached below zero during both ice ages.

Plants died off, starving the large game that the Neanderthals hunted. The large animals died off, and the Neanderthals soon followed since they depended on large game for food. Early Homo sapiens survived the ice ages because they were already adapted to eating plants and all kinds of meat and fish.

Some researchers believe a small number of Neanderthals survived the first ice age, and any remaining Neanderthals moved in with humans when the second ice age began. They interbred and soon became a part of the human gene pool.^[10]

The Middle Ages are an enduring staple of our popular culture; many films, books, and television series draw on the medieval period as a backdrop for their plots and characters. These fictional works often represent a view of magic in medieval Europe that lacks the fascinating (and often bewildering) complexity of beliefs medieval people held.

10Belief Was Considered A Pagan Superstition

In the early Middle Ages, it was not respectable to admit to a belief in magic. St. Augustine, an influential late antique theologian, denied that demons could grant people magical powers, allowing only that they could deceive people into thinking they had magical powers. This line of thought was followed by most early medieval legal and theological writing.

A Carolingian capitulary issued for the newly conquered (and newly Christianized) region of Saxony forbids killing a woman on suspicion of witchcraft on penalty of death, describing the crime as something done, “in the pagan manner.” The 10th-century text the Canon Episcopi instructs priests to preach to their flocks that the “phantasms” sent by the devil are false.

9Sailors From A Realm Of Clouds Would Steal Crops

Of course, church condemnation doesn’t mean people stop believing. Around the same time as the Capitulary for Saxony was written, the Bishop of Lyons, Agobard, composed a treatise denouncing belief in magic. In the process, he tells us a lot about what people actually believed.

Agobard mentions that it was thought that weather mages could raise storms—and, most remarkably, sailors from the land of clouds sailed the sky and stole crops in collaboration with these weather mages. Although he does not mention crop stealing, Gervise of Tillsbury repeats stories about aerial sailors, including one who “drowns” in the earthly atmosphere almost 400 years after Agobrad. A possible explanation for the commonness of these stories is the phenomenon of the superior mirage, which can fool the eye into thinking there are indeed ships in the air.

8Most Witchcraft Trials Involved A Single Defendant

While early medieval authorities were skeptical of the reality of magic, changing philosophical and theological opinions meant that by the 14th century, magic was considered a crime. However, these medieval witchcraft trials were different from the mass hysteria around witches that consumed the 16th and 17th centuries. There were very few cases where large numbers of unrelated people were tried at once.

The vast majority of witchcraft trials involved a single defendant or occasionally a small group. In cases were a group was tried, there was usually a relationship connecting them all, like belonging to the same household (servants being charged along with their masters or mistresses seems to be a common combination) or being political conspirators. The one exception is Philip the Fair’s mass executions during the suppression of the Templar order.

7Religious Figures Practiced Magic As Well

The popular image of the medieval witch hunt would not be complete without an accompanying priest or monk to signify the supposed role of the church in the persecution of suspected witches. But sometimes, clergy themselves practiced magic, particularly forms that required learning and access to written materials.

The monks of St. Augustine’s in Canterbury kept 30 magic books in their library. The texts gave information on the rituals needed to summon spirits. Priests, particularly rural parish priests, might also be called upon to perform rituals that mixed magic with orthodox rites. A 12th-century English ritual to make fields fertile involved sprinkling clumps of earth with milk, honey, oil, herbs, and holy water, reciting passages from the Bible, and saying four Masses over them.

6Not All Magic Was Serious

Medieval people also enjoyed that staple of Las Vegas stage and child’s birthday parties: sleight of height and magic tricks. A 14th-century book with the lofty title Secretum Philosphorum is mainly devoted not to the weighty matters of the Queen of the Sciences but to fun little experiments and tricks. One section instructs the reader on how to use invisible ink to play pranks on their friends, make an object appear to turn by itself, and escape after having their hands tied behind their back.

5The Norse Were More Suspicious Of Male Magicians

Temporarily turning away from medieval Christendom, we look to pre-conversion Scandinavia. While the Norse considered respectable for a man some things we would recognize as magic, like using runes or poetry to supernatural affect, they saw seidr as a woman’s domain. Men who practiced seidr were considered to have demeaned themselves.

In the sagas, male characters who practice seidr are portrayed in negative terms, and the texts comment on their unmanliness. Despite this, the chief god Odin is explicitly identified with seidr. But even Odin could not avoid being mocked, for Loki denounces him for it. This is in contrast to the respect paid to women practitioners when they appear in the sagas, as shown by the ritualistic and reverent welcoming of Thorbjorg in Eirik the Red’s Saga, “when she entered, all men thought it their duty to offer her becoming greetings.”

4Late Medieval People Thought Magic Respectable Science

In the High and Late Middle Ages, ideas such as astrology were part of respectable intellectual discourse. As an example, Albertus Magnus, who was one of the leading theologians in medieval Europe and wrote widely on natural philosophy, believed that stones had special curative powers and astrology was a genuine predictive science.

Many medieval royal and noble courts patronized astrologers and alchemists and even consulted the stargazers about important political decisions.

3Most Witchcraft Trials Were Carried Out By Secular Courts

We often assume that the Inquisition, the body of clergy authorized to combat heretics, played a leading role in witchcraft trials. Although some Inquisitors pursued suspected witches, most witchcraft trials were carried out by the secular authorities.

According to a survey of records of English witch trials, not only were most carried out by the government, but the alleged magic use was to carry out another crime like murder or treason. In 1258, Pope Alexander VI decreed that Inquisitors should not involve themselves in witchcraft cases unless there was a clear element of heretical thought. (However, authors of inquisitorial handbooks, like Bernard Gui, continued to advise inquisitors about how to question and prosecute sorcerers.)

2The 15th Century Started The Panic Around Witchcraft

The 15th century is critical in the history of witchcraft because it laid much of the intellectual foundation for the mass witch hysteria of the early modern period. It also marks a critical departure in legal practice from earlier medieval witch trials. There was a new focus on the alleged nature of the demonic pact that supposedly underlay all sorcery, as opposed to trials focusing on magic as the means by which another crime was committed.

It is in the early 15th century that the notion of the witches’ Sabbath, wherein witches gathered to commune with the devil, became both widely acknowledged as fact and a key element of witchcraft prosecutions. The stories about witches’ Sabbaths may have spread particularly quickly as a result of their strongly sensationalistic and prurient character.

1The Author Of The Malleus Maleficarum Was Unsuccessful In Convicting Witches

Possibly the most famous medieval text on magic, the Malleus Maleficarum was written in the 1480s as a practical guide for conducting your own witch hunts but also to justify its primary author, Heinrich Kramer, and his ideas about magic. Kramer was a member of the Dominican order and an inquisitor active in Germany in the late 15th century. Prior to writing the Malleus Maleficarum, Kramer tried to prosecute suspected witches but provoked outrage from the local citizenry.

Between 1482 and 1484, Kramer was stymied by local churchmen, who objected to his questioning local women about their sex lives in the course of his inquisition. Kramer sought to confirm the authority of inquisitors to investigate witchcraft, and the pope backed him. Even armed with this, he made little headway.

Initially, the Bishop of Innsbruck, Golser, acceded to Kramer. However, Kramer’s heavy-handedness caused the bishop and the local archduke to intervene. Bishop Golser halted the trial and ordered all the suspects to be released. It was only after this failure that Kramer wrote the Malleus, justifying his methods and exaggerating his own successes in witch-hunting.

+ Further Reading

For a further education on witches, warlocks, magic, and more, check out the following lists from our archives:

10 Ancient Books That Promise Supernatural Powers
10 Surprising Facts About Magic And Superstition In Ancient Rome
10 Folk Magic Traditions Of The Early Modern Era
Top 10 Magical Societies

Jim Lyons is a student who is passionate about history, speculative fiction, and traditional music.