Today, astrology is largely the stuff of superstition and poorly thought-out tattoos. That was not always the case, and for much of history, looking to the stars was an absolutely legitimate method of decision-making. That was true for everyone from the common man to the highest ranks of nobility, making some astrologers incredibly influential.

10Jean-Dominique Cassini

Cassini is most commonly associated with his advancements in astronomy, but his interest in the stars started with astrology. In his day—the mid-17th century—astrology and astronomy still went hand in hand. The Italian-born Giovanni Domenico Cassini would later give his name to the space probe, but when he first moved to France for college, it was astrology he was studying.

His studies led him to believe that there was absolutely no truth to what had been considered a science for centuries. While his teachers might have disagreed with him, he still got the attention of the Marquis Cornelio Malvasia in 1644. Malvasia later gave him an appointment at the newly established Panzano Observatory. There, Cassini’s studies turned to astronomy, and he would go on to make the initial calculations that would later lead to the discovery of the speed of light, find the gap in the rings of Saturn, and discover several new moons.

9Adelard Of Bath

Adelard of Bath lived at the turn of the 12th century, and while he is not credited for making any great scientific advancement or overhauling any astrological works, he is credited for opening the door between the Eastern world and the West.

He translated Liber Praestigiorum, a text notable for being the first Hermetic work introduced to the Western world, and it was quickly followed by countless alchemical and philosophical writings.

Adelard believed knowledge of astral magic and astrology would allow a person to accomplish just about anything, from finding love to getting rid of scorpions in his native city of Bath. Later scholars would disagree on certain points (Adelard thought the use of incantations and incense were key, while others thought that just knowing how to read the stars was enough), but his translations brought something else to Europe, too: the idea of Egypt’s demon worship.

8John Partridge (And Isaac Bickerstaff)

John Partridge was born in London in 1643, and after serving some time as an apprentice shoemaker, he found his interests were in the stars. His astrological predictions were so popular that he started publishing his own almanac, and others used his name to promote their own predictions.

One thing he did not predict was Isaac Bickerstaff.

We know him better as Jonathan Swift, and he thought astrology was nonsense. To prove his point, he began writing his own almanac as Isaac Bickerstaff, and he predicted Partridge would die on March 29, 1709. Partridge did not die, but he had a terrible time convincing people that he was still alive.

7Guido Bonatti

Guido Bonatti lived in 13th-century Italy and was the preferred astrologer for noble families, especially those rallying against the force of the Pope and the Catholic Church. He was immortalized by Dante, who condemned him to the eighth circle of hell, reserved for the fortune tellers and the astrologers.

What we know about Bonatti comes in bits and pieces. His father reportedly lived to be 107 years old, and an uncle survived to 120. He was rumored to be an incredibly hot-headed sort who liked to play pranks on women, and his mother supposedly knew someone who had given birth to a cat.

Regardless, Bonatti was in a position to guide some powerful men (perhaps even including the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II). He advised Verona’s ruler and Florentine nobility during one of the most turbulent centuries in Italian history.

6Albumasar

Albumasar (or Ja’far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma’shar Al-Balkhi) was one of the most famous astrologers of the ninth century. His Great Introduction to the Science of Astrology is one of the foremost works on the subject, and it has preserved a treasure trove of information on how philosophical debate contributed to the rules regarding the role of the stars and planets in our worldly lives.

He was also behind a scientific discovery not just rooted in astrological beliefs but absolutely correct. In the midst of one of his major astrological works, Albumasar included thoughts and observations on the tides. He posited that they were caused by the physical movement of celestial bodies around us, and he also documented the relationship between tides and the Moon.

5Pierre D’Ailly

Pierre d’Ailly was an astrologer and a bishop. He was born around 1350, and much of his work involved establishing the difference between astrology that was superstition and astrology based on the science of the stars. He believed the end of the world was nigh, even though no one could tell precisely when it was going to happen.

One of his most influential works was a book called Imago Mundi. A mix of sciences influenced by the stars, the book was reprinted between 1480 and 1483. A copy of this new edition ended up in the library of Christopher Columbus, who not only made extensive notes throughout the whole book but also used its geographic claims as proof that it was possible to sail from Spain to India.

4Guido Von List

Von List had an eye operation in 1902, and while he was near-blind and recovering, he claimed to have been visited by a vision that revealed what he called the creation of the Aryan folk soul. That began a lifelong journey for the man who claimed to be both an astrologer and a magician, and he would go on to claim he had mystical, magical proof that the Norse Edda told the story of the creation of the four root races, along with the Aryan race.

He would go on to claim that he was a reincarnated priest-king and establish several secret societies, each with members he recruited to help him monitor Jewish activities and, ultimately, restore the Aryan race to glory.

If that all sounds familiar, it absolutely should. Von List died in 1918, but his Aryan astrology and mysticism laid the groundwork for the occult obsession of the Nazis.

3William Lilly

In 1652, astrologer William Lilly published a book called Monarchy or No Monarchy. Fourteen years later, he was called before the English government to explain how he had managed to predict the Fire of London, which destroyed a huge part of the city. Lilly found himself under investigation for starting the fire to make his prophecy come true, and only when he convinced the government he had been wrong was he released.

Almost a decade before, he was advising Parliament in matters of war. His astrological charts and advice were among the evidence considered by parliamentarians planning their movements against King Charles, and he had an undeniable hand in guiding just what was decided and when it happened.

2Simon Forman

Forman took up astrology in mid-life, and between 1596 and 1603, he averaged 2,000 consultations every year. That means he had an impact on huge number of Elizabethan lives, and since he documented them—and himself—in such detail, he is one of the major sources we have today on what everyday life was at the turn of the 16th century.

He wrote thousands of pages on everything from occult beliefs of the day to his own dreams and the concerns of the people who consulted him. He shaped history not by influencing the events around wars or nobility but by advising the everyday person on everything from their romantic lives to medical concerns and when and where they would find their missing socks. Forman’s writing also contain some of the most complete documentation of Shakespearean plays as they were originally performed.

1William The Englishman

Plenty of weird practices have cropped up throughout the history of medicine, and William the Englishman was at the heart of one of the strangest.

In the early 1300s, William was living in Marseille and practicing a version of uroscopy that seems questionable on the best of days. They theory behind uroscopy was that a trained physician could diagnose a patient’s medical issues by examining his or her urine. In his treatise “De urina non visa,” William developed the idea that by casting a patient’s astrological chart, he could determine the condition of a person’s urine without even seeing it and, in turn, could diagnose the patient.

The text even contains some of William’s personal experiences in diagnosing patients’ urine via their star charts, along with his defense of the incredibly questionable practice of medical astrology. Just how many futures he shaped is uncertain.

No matter how much we all hate them, bugs are a crucial part of life on Earth. They help keep the planet’s ecosystem healthy, and without them, life on our world would probably look a lot different than it does now.

That’s not all, though: Bugs have had a huge part to play in the shaping of our civilization as well. Throughout our history, bugs (used here to refer to insects, pathogens, and other assorted creepy-crawlies) have turned the tide of wars, influenced politics, and generally played an important role in shaping the modern world.

10 Lice Halted Napoleon’s Invasion Of Russia

Invading Russia and getting destroyed in the process has turned into a running joke by now. Ever since the Russian region was consolidated into one empire, very few forces have had the gall to think of taking it over, given its vast size and bitterly cold winters. Not everyone has been smart enough to figure that out on their own, though. Armies like Hitler’s Germany and Napoleon’s France had to learn their lessons the hard way.

While the Nazis were always kind of doomed to lose due to waging war on more fronts than they could count, France had a real chance of winning. Many people think Napoleon lost due to the same factors as Hitler, though according to some researchers, it wasn’t the cold that defeated him but rather insects.^[1]

A French study concluded that about one third of Napoleon’s army during the invasion was decimated by deadly diseases. The worst of them—trench fever and typhus—are caused by body lice. If it wasn’t for the reduced morale and casualties, the outcome of the invasion might have been very different.

9 The Louisiana Purchase

The United States has been a major world power for so long now that we forget that bringing it all together was quite a tedious task. Even after the country gained independence, a lot of what we now know as US territory was owned by multiple factions. If it wasn’t for certain factors coming together for the US government at the right time, maps of the United States today might look quite different.

One of those factors was the Louisiana Purchase. You see, back in the very early 1800s, a huge chunk of North America, known as the Louisiana territory—was held by France under Napoleon. He had no plans to give it up and actually wanted it to be a thriving French colony on the continent.

What changed his mind was a bout of yellow fever among his soldiers fighting in the Caribbean. The disease was spread through mosquitoes and was especially deadly for the French, who had no natural immunity against it. Yellow fever killed about 100 to 120 men per day.

Napoleon’s failure to assert control in the Caribbean due to the disease made him reconsider his plans for the Louisiana territory, and he sold it to the US government for $15 million in 1803.^[2]

8 Disease Stopped The Japanese Advance On British India

Japan’s role in World War II has been extensively discussed and scrutinized, though mostly in the context of battles in the Pacific and Southeast Asia. One part that’s often left out of the conversations is its advance on British India, and how close Japan was to winning the war if it wasn’t for some crucial battles there.

In 1944, Japan had successfully managed to surround two major cities in northeast India: Kohima and Imphal. They would have taken them and set up bases for further offensives against the British, too, if it wasn’t for the jungle.

Because of mounting casualties due to diseases like malaria and dysentery in the region, Japan decided to withdraw from both of those advantageous positions. They lost a majority of their forces in the retreat through Burma to disease,^[3] and this defeat ended up being the turning point of the war in the Eastern theater. It wasn’t just the Japanese, as the British forces had to deal with the diseases, too. They still held their strategic advantage, though, which eventually helped them to win.

7 When Flowers Took Over The World

If you take a look at all the plants around you, you’d notice that many of them are flowering in nature. They make up a big part of our food, gave us some of our earliest medicines, and provided us with artistic inspiration back when there was nothing to do. Without flowering plants, life on Earth would be very different.

How it happened, though, is one of biology’s biggest mysteries. Before flowering plants took over the world roughly 130 million years ago, the most abundant type of plant was the conifer. But then flowers came out of nowhere and took over, aided by insects like honeybees and butterflies.^[4]

If it wasn’t for pollination, flowering plants would have never been able to spread across the world, which would have dramatically altered the modern natural landscape. It wouldn’t be a stretch to say that insects made human civilization possible, or at least human civilization as we know it.

6 The Spanish Flu Helped Britain Maintain Control Of India

World War I was such a monumental event that we forget about other, equally important things happening at that time. One of those was the Spanish flu, which possibly killed more people around the world than both of the World Wars combined in a matter of a few years. The reason it happened so fast was the flu bug responsible for it, which spread much faster than normal viruses.

While it had a crucial impact on many world events, one of the most important was its impact on British-controlled India. Indian calls for independence were growing louder in light of the war and Indian participation in it. Mahatma Gandhi had plans for independence and widespread protest as soon as it was over, when Britain was at its weakest. This was also the time when the Spanish flu hit, and—combined with a widespread drought—it adversely affected a large part of the Indian population, including Gandhi.^[5]

Because of Gandhi being too weak to oppose it, the Brits continued their strict implementation of martial law (first introduced during the war) across the country. That allowed them to quell any threatening revolts and reaffirmed their hold on the country for another three decades.

Without Britain’s bases in India and all the income they generated, the results of World War II might have been drastically different.

5 More Than Half Of The Human Body Is Made Up Of Microbes

Most people assume that the human body only consists of human cells, which is a fair assumption to make. Some are aware of the presence of bacteria in the gut, but as they don’t tend to cause harm, we don’t give them much thought.

If you look into it, though, you’d find that the number of microbes in the body isn’t just more than you thought; they outnumber your cells. Human cells only amount to 43 percent of the body’s total number of cells.^[6] Mounting research on this topic suggests that the microbial diversity in our body is much greater than we ever thought. Everything from bacteria to fungi live in us.

That doesn’t mean that you can start being careless about harmful organisms like stomach bugs. The microbes in the body live in a sort of a symbiotic relationship with us, unlike external bugs that aim to harm. Scientists know that all of our pet microbes help us in some way, though why there are so many of them remains a mystery.

4 Bugs Gave Us Colors

We take the various colors around us for granted now, but for a huge part of our history, there was no way to reproduce them. Synthetic dyes didn’t exist back in the day, and other than the colors easily found in nature, it was difficult for artists and craftsmen to use the whole color palette due to that limitation. The solution? Bugs, of course.

From wasps to parasitic insects, we have a long history of using bugs to make our dyes. Take the color red as an example. For the longest time, the red we had was too dull to even look at, which changed when we came in contact with Native Mesoamerican civilizations. They had been using an insect called the cochineal to produce an almost perfect version of the red we saw in nature for quite some time.^[7]

Another color that was particularly difficult to reproduce was purple. Purple could be acquired from the city of Tyre (in modern-day Lebanon) and was produced from a type of mollusk found in the area. It took more than 9,000 of these mollusks to create just one gram of Tyrian purple. That’s why purple was a color of royalty for the most part, as no one else could afford it.

3 Insects Drive Evolution In Plants

We know that the love-hate relationship between insects and plants plays a huge part in keeping Earth’s ecosystem healthy and also ensures the survival of other forms of life. If that relationship were to be severed in any way, it would be catastrophic for us. The interplay between insects and plants has been extensively studied by science, though we’re nowhere near fully understanding the extent of it.

According to some research, insects may be the main drivers of evolution among plants. In a study published in Science Daily, researchers found that plants which are not treated with insecticide immediately start developing more toxins in their fruits.

In some cases, the evolved traits were visible in just one generation, suggesting that plants don’t just evolve as a response to insect behavior, but they do so rapidly. Evolution usually takes millennia to take shape, but because of insects, plants are capable of evolving in a matter of years. It provides a strong bit of evidence for what scientists have suspected for a long time: Insects are the primary reason behind the overwhelming diversity of plants on Earth.^[8]

2 Malaria Gave Way To The UK As We Know It Today

Scotland may part of the United Kingdom now, but that wasn’t always the case. Back in the 17th century, Scotland was an independent kingdom, with its own plans to colonize the New World. In the 1690s, around 4,000 Scots landed in the Americas, with dreams of their own colonial empire. What they got wrong, however, was the location. They had landed in what would eventually be known as the one of the world’s deadliest jungles: the Darien Gap, part of modern-day Panama.

Essentially a malarial swamp, the Darien Gap is notorious for its harsh terrain. The Scots had the right idea, as it was then believed to the be the gateway between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, though they fell a bit short on reconnaissance before embarking on the mission.

Within two years, half of those settlers were dead due to deadly mosquito-borne diseases like malaria and yellow fever. Scotland went bankrupt trying to sustain the colony, which directly led to its joining the United Kingdom in 1707. If not for that misguided attempt at colonization by the Scots—combined with the wrath of the mosquitoes—things might have been different.^[9]

1 Insects Were The First Creatures To Fly

The ability to fly is one of the most unique adaptations in the natural world. We don’t think about it as much as we should because so many creatures have it, though from an evolutionary perspective, it remains a mystery. We have no idea when some animals managed to grow their own wings for the first time, and many evolutionary biologists are currently hard at work trying to figure it out.

According to some recent research, though, insects were the first creatures to develop the ability to fly. It was a natural response to plants growing taller in size around 400 million years ago.^[10] Land plants came onto the scene around the same time (geologically speaking) as the earliest ancestors of insects. More importantly, insects developed the ability to fly only once, and all subsequent flying insects evolved from that one prototype.

You can check out Himanshu’s stuff at Cracked and Screen Rant, get in touch with him for writing gigs, or just say hello to him on Twitter.

The term “kingmaker” is used to describe a person of power and influence who plays a pivotal role in a royal or political succession. They typically rely on their political connections, great wealth, or military prowess to gain an outcome which would not be possible without their contribution. Two other characteristics that generally describe a kingmaker is that they’re not themselves eligible for the position they influence and that they appear during a power struggle between two or more parties.

The question remains—king or kingmaker? Is it better to be the power figure or the one pulling the strings from the shadows? These next entries have never been household names, but their influence on history is undeniable.

10 Richard Neville, Earl Of Warwick

Richard Neville, 16th earl of Warwick, was the first to earn the epithet “Kingmaker” for helping to depose two kings during the Wars of the Roses.

During the second half of the 15th century, both the Houses of Lancaster and York had a claim to the throne of England. This started a series of civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses.

Initially, the Nevilles sided with the House of York, led by Richard, third duke of York. However, both the duke and the earl of Salisbury, Neville’s father, died in battle. This left Richard Neville and the duke’s son, Edward, as the people leading the Yorkist side. In 1461, they triumphed, and Edward became King Edward IV of England. Meanwhile, Neville’s power reached its apex as he inherited both his father’s and his mother’s possessions and received numerous titles from the king. A letter from the governor of Abbeville to King Louis XI of France exemplified who truly held the power in England. He said, “They have but two rulers—M. de Warwick and another whose name I have forgotten.”^[1]

The relationship soured when Edward secretly married Elizabeth Woodville instead of King Louis’s sister-in-law like Neville planned. Neville tried and failed to install Edward’s brother, George, to the throne, so instead, he switched sides to the Lancastrians and brought back Henry VI. Although initially successful, Edward reclaimed the throne in 1471 after Richard Neville was killed at the Battle of Barnet.

9 The Praetorian Guard

Ever since Augustus became the first emperor of Rome, the Praetorian Guard acted as the emperor’s personal security detail. They served in this position for over 300 years, and as the Guard’s power steadily grew, it became more and more corrupt.

Although it was sworn to protect the emperor, the Praetorian Guard protected, first and foremost, its own interests. If a certain ruler went against those interests, praetorians had no qualms about assassinating the ones they’d vowed to defend. Over a dozen Roman emperors were murdered by the Guard, including Commodus, Caligula, and Aurelian.

The greediness and corruption of the Guard reached their apex in AD 193, during the Year of the Five Emperors. They had just assassinated the last emperor, Pertinax, because he tried to institute reforms which included the restoration of discipline to the Praetorian Guard. With several claimants to the throne, the Guard decided to auction the imperial title by offering their support to the highest bidder. Didius Julianus won the throne by offering 25,000 sesterces per soldier.^[2] He reigned for nine weeks before being executed.

The Praetorian Guard came to an end in AD 312, when it was permanently dissolved by Constantine. The Guard supported Maxentius in a three-way fight for the throne. However, Constantine triumphed in decisive fashion and sent whatever praetorians were left to the far corners of the Roman Empire.

8 Ricimer

Flavius Ricimer was a general who effectively ruled for the last two decades of the Western Roman Empire by exercising his influence through puppet emperors. The son of a Suebi chief and a Visigoth princess, Ricimer could not ascend to the imperial throne. However, while serving in the military, he befriended Flavius Julius Majorianus, and in AD 457, he helped him become Majorian, emperor of Rome. In turn, the new ruler made Ricimer magister militum—master of the soldiers.

After Majorian was defeated in a campaign against the Vandals, Ricimer convinced the Senate to turn against the emperor. Upon Majorian’s return to Italy, his magister militum had him arrested, tortured, and executed. In 461, Ricimer appointed Libius Severus as the new emperor of the Western Roman Empire.

Severus died in 465, and it took almost two years before a new ruler was appointed. At this time, the faltering Western Empire was dependent on the Eastern Roman Empire for aid. Therefore, the eastern ruler, Leo I, had even more influence than the Germanic general. Eventually, the two compromised—Leo appointed Anthemius as the new emperor, but Ricimer joined his family by marrying his daughter.^[3]

In 472, Anthemius also failed against the Vandals and incurred the wrath of Ricimer, who went to war against him. The emperor was captured and beheaded and replaced with Olybrius. Ricimer died after a few weeks, followed by Olybrius later that year. What followed were a few years of short reigns before Odoacer proclaimed himself king of Italy, thus marking the end of the Western Roman Empire.

7 Mikhail Suslov

Known unofficially as the chief ideologue of the party, Mikhail Suslov was a Soviet statesman who maintained a high-ranking role within the Communist Party for over three decades until his death in 1982.^[4]

Under Stalin, Suslov quickly rose through the ranks. In 1941, he became a full member of the Central Committee of the Soviet Party and remained one for the rest of his life. He was named secretary in 1947 and elevated to the Politburo in 1952. Suslov saw a brief loss of power after Stalin’s death, when Nikita Khrushchev began his de-Stalinization process. However, he was back on top within a year, as the new Soviet leader needed an ideological expert like Suslov to help him justify his anti-Stalin campaign.

Arguably, his first turn as kingmaker came in 1957, when Khrushchev was in a power struggle with the Anti-Party Group led by former premier Georgy Malenkov. Suslov lent his support to Khrushchev and helped him destroy the old Bolsheviks. However, seven years later, Suslov switched sides and played a key role in ousting the first secretary for political “adventurism.”

Unofficially, some said that Suslov was first offered the leadership of the Soviet Union, but instead, he settled for the role of second secretary and advanced Leonid Brezhnev as a candidate. It can be argued that this actually provided him more control over the running of the Central Committee, as the Soviet ruler had to contend with international politics and official functions.

6 Carl Otto Morner

At the beginning of the 19th century, Sweden was facing a succession crisis. King Charles XIII was getting old and had no heir. He adopted Charles August, but the crown prince died of a stroke in 1810. Moreover, there was a real concern that Emperor Alexander I would invade in order to install a Russian candidate and turn Sweden into a puppet of the Russian Empire.

As a result, a growing number of Sweden’s military and political elite believed that the wisest course of action was to name as heir a French marshal supported by Napoleon. Therefore, a Swedish delegation went to Paris to seek the emperor’s advice. The delegation’s junior member was a lieutenant named Carl Otto Morner. Although he was only a minor member of Sweden’s formal assembly, called the Riksdag, Morner took it upon himself to propose as heir a marshal named Jean Bernadotte.

The move was considered so daring and outrageous that it almost got Morner arrested. His choice didn’t have the support of Napoleon because the emperor and the marshal were not on the best of terms. It didn’t even have the full support of Bernadotte himself, who was still apprehensive about the plan.

At first, Napoleon refused to endorse or veto Bernadotte’s candidacy.^[5] However, upon closer reflection, he eventually consented. Now that he had France’s support, the Swedish public began to warm up to Bernadotte, and the Riksdag unanimously elected him crown prince. He took the name Charles XIV and founded the House of Bernadotte, which still reigns today. Morner served as his advisor, retired as a colonel, and then became a deputy governor.

5 Wiremu Tamihana

During the 1850s, tensions were rising in New Zealand between Maori tribes (known as iwi) and white Europeans (called the Pakeha) over the latter’s continuous encroachment on indigenous Maori land. This prompted the Kingitanga, or Maori King Movement, which sought to unite the iwi under one monarch.

Eventually, Waikato iwi chief Te Wherowhero became the first Maori king, but another man named Wiremu Tamihana was dubbed “kingmaker” by the Pakeha for his instrumental role in the movement.

Leader of the Ngati Haua iwi, Tamihana was well-liked by the Pakeha for founding several flourishing Christian communities and trading with European settlers in Auckland. He was one of the main forces behind the Kingitanga and not only put forward Te Wherowhero as a candidate but convinced other iwi to accept his kingship. When the latter was confirmed as king in 1859, Tamihana placed a Bible on his head in a ritual which his descendants still perform on new Maori kings today.^[6]

Even with a newly elected king, the disputes between Maori and Pakeha led to an armed conflict known as the Taranaki Wars in 1860. Tamihana tried to act as mediator and sought a peaceful resolution, but other iwi leaders preferred to fight. The wars ended in a government victory, which led to significant confiscation of Maori land.

4 The Sayyid Brothers

By the time Emperor Aurangzeb died in 1707, he left the Mughal Empire a mighty domain which almost stretched over the entire Indian subcontinent. However, what followed was a series of short-lived reigns of emperors who were either crowned or deposed according to the interests of two highly influential courtiers—Hussain and Hassan Sayyid.^[7]

Aurangzeb’s successor was his son, Mu’azzam, who became Emperor Bahadur Shah. He ruled until 1712, after which he was succeeded by his son, Jahandar Shah. The new emperor’s reign was short, though, as he angered many people by elevating a dancing girl to the position of queen consort. The Sayyid brothers decided to back one of Jahandar’s nephews, Farrukhsiyar, who defeated his uncle at Agra and became emperor in 1713. Both brothers were given titles and high-ranking positions with the court.

The relationship between the Sayyids and Farrukhsiyar deteriorated after a few years, as the emperor regularly sought out other advisors and left out the brothers. Eventually, this escalated to war in 1719. The Sayyids won, deposed Farrukhsiyar, and installed one of Bahadur’s grandsons, Rafi ud-Darajat, as the new emperor. He acted mainly as a puppet ruler as the Sayyid brothers became the true power brokers of the Mughal Empire. However, Rafi ud-Darajat ruled for roughly 100 days before dying. He was followed by his elder brother, Rafi ud-Daulah, who filled the same role. Unfortunately, he also died after 100 days.

The new emperor was Muhammad Shah who, although young, had no interest in serving as a puppet for the Sayyid brothers. Instead, he gathered support from many disgruntled nobles and ended their reign by assassinating one sibling and defeating the other in battle.

3 Godwin, Earl Of Wessex

Between 1016 and 1035, Denmark, Norway, and England formed the short-lived North Sea Empire under King Cnut the Great. The empire collapsed with the king’s death, but those two decades saw the appearance of so-called “new nobles,” who managed to rise from relative obscurity to prominence at Cnut’s court.

Chief among them was Godwin, who became the first earl of Wessex around 1020. After Cnut’s death, his son, Harold Harefoot, fought with Alfred, son of Ethelred the Unready, over the English throne. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Godwin conspired with Harold to lure the young prince to his death. First, the earl of Wessex professed his loyalty to Alfred and convinced him to go to London. He led him into an ambush in which Alfred’s men were killed, and the prince was blinded. He was sent to Ely Monastery, where he died shortly.

Harold died in 1040 and was succeeded by his brother Harthacnut, who was also Alfred’s half-brother. Angered by the assassination, the new king had Harold’s body dug up, decapitated, and thrown in the sewer. Godwin managed to escape severe punishment by convincing Harthacnut that he was only following orders and providing a lavish ship as a gift.

A new power struggle occurred in 1042, after Harthacnut’s death, between Magnus I of Norway and Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred. Godwin’s support of Edward was considered crucial to securing the throne.^[3] During Edward’s reign, the earl of Wessex was regarded as the second most powerful man after the king. His son, Harold Godwinson, became the new earl after Godwin’s death and later ascended to the throne when Edward died without an heir, thus becoming the last Anglo-Saxon king of England before the Norman invasion.

2 James Farley

US politician James Farley is probably most remembered today for a corruption scandal dubbed “Farley’s Follies.” While serving as postmaster general in 1933, Farley took preprints (un-gummed and imperforated sheets of stamps), autographed them, and gave them to acquaintances as gifts. When philatelists heard of his actions, they decried them as abuse of power, as Farley had used his position to gain access to new stamps and turn them into valuable rarities.

Of course, this was just a minor episode in a career that spanned decades and saw Farley serve as advisor to dignitaries and politicians and even as chairman of Coca-Cola International. However, Farley’s greatest success was engineering four triumphant elections for Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Farley and FDR met in 1924 at the Democratic National Convention. Four years later, Farley served as campaign manager for Roosevelt’s victorious gubernatorial candidacy. He did the same thing in 1930. In 1932 and 1936, Farley helped FDR get elected president of the United States. In return, Roosevelt named him postmaster general, chairman of the New York State Democratic Committee, and chairman of the Democratic National Committee. It was at this time that people started recognizing James Farley’s tremendous clout and referred to him as “kingmaker,” something which annoyed the president.^[9]

The “king” and “kingmaker” had a falling out in 1940, when Roosevelt decided to run for a third term instead of supporting Farley’s presidential candidacy.

1 Chanakya

Chanakya, also identified as Kautilya, was a fourth-century BC philosopher who served as teacher and advisor to Chandragupta and helped him establish the largest empire on the Indian subcontinent.

During Chanakya’s time, most of India consisted of smaller kingdoms called Mahajanapadas, except for the northern region, which was home to the Magadha Kingdom ruled by the Nanda dynasty. Most of the information we have on Chanakya comes from semilegendary accounts, so it’s hard to distinguish fact from fiction. However, they all agree that King Dhana Nanda insulted Chanakya somehow, and the philosopher swore that he would destroy the Nanda dynasty.^[10]

Chanakya aligned himself with the young Chandragupta Maurya, who may or may not have been orphaned and of noble lineage, depending on the source. The two slowly began to raise an army to challenge the ruling dynasty. The war itself is also poorly documented, referenced mostly in secondhand accounts from Roman and Greek historians. However, around 321 BC, Chandragupta overthrew the Nanda dynasty and became the first ruler of the Maurya Empire. He based his political and economical policies on the Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise typically attributed to Chanakya. So did his successors, including his grandson, Ashoka, who is credited with extending the empire and spreading Buddhism.

Meetings are not usually interesting. Anybody who has worked an office job knows that there are far too many of them. Some of the world’s most successful businesspeople have attempted to make them as short as possible in the belief that they otherwise do more harm than good. People sitting around a desk, arguing over details, and falling asleep: hardly the stuff of legend.

But it is possible for meetings to be radically more interesting than what we are accustomed to. If the definition of a meeting is allowed to include conferences and assemblies, then there is no shortage of meetings in which you certainly wouldn’t fall asleep. So here are ten occasions when people “sat around a table” and changed the course of history.

Related: 10 Facts Everyone Forgets About World War II

10 The Congress of Vienna

The year was 1814. Napoleon Bonaparte had swept across Europe in a manner not seen since the days of Julius Caesar before abdicating his throne and going into exile. The Congress of Vienna was therefore convened to decide the future of the continent after a century of constant warfare and civil unrest had rocked the Old World to its foundations.

Representatives from the Four Great Powers—Austria, Prussia, Britain, and Russia—agreed to reshape and balance European borders in a way that would prevent future conflict. France was cut down in size, while Prussia received significant territorial gains. A new German confederation was created. However, some critics argue that the Congress of Vienna was a reactionary response by traditional monarchs to the threat of liberal and revolutionary ideals.

Either way, the Congress of Vienna created a new continental order known as the Concert of Europe, which ensured relative peace and stability for a century. But that all came crashing down in 1914, and it is arguable that the Congress of Vienna directly paved the way for World War One.^[1]

9 Bretton Woods

In 1944, with World War II still raging, 730 delegates from the Allied Nations gathered in an innocuous New Hampshire town. The name of the town? Bretton Woods. The USA, in particular, had realized that, once the war was concluded, several previously wealthy nations would need significant investment. This presented an opportunity to create something never before attempted in world history: a truly regulated international monetary system.

Officially entitled the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, this three-week gathering established the International Monetary Fund and a precursor to the World Bank, called the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. From the end of WWII until 1973, the Bretton Woods Conference shaped global economic affairs and, by extension, geopolitics as a whole. It also represented the point at which America truly became the world’s foremost superpower, superseding their one-time rulers, the British.^[2]

8 The First Council of Nicaea

It is hard to imagine what Christianity was like in its earliest years. Rather than a global organization with a clear hierarchy and defined set of beliefs, liturgies, and rules, it was once a hodge-podge collection of wildly differing groups.

That all changed at the First Council of Nicaea. Convened in AD 325 by Constantine I, the Roman emperor who made Christianity the state religion of Rome, its purpose was to set out exactly how Christianity would function as an organized religion. Of particular importance was the relationship between Jesus and God. While some believed that Jesus was a human, others believed he was the divine Son of God, and a third group thought Jesus and God were one and the same.

Constantine desperately wanted to avoid the brewing ecumenical conflict, and his Council managed to agree that Jesus was indivisible from God. This official recognition of the Holy Trinity was termed the Nicene Creed, and it has served as the binding theological foundation for organized Christianity ever since.^[3]

7 The Yalta Conference

One of the most famous photographs of all time features the three most powerful men in the world sitting side-by-side, looking more like old friends than the leaders of World WarII’s victorious nations. Josef Stalin, Winston Churchill, and Franklin D. Roosevelt are the three men. In early 1945, they met in the Crimean resort of Yalta to discuss what would happen in the aftermath of an Allied victory. They agreed that prominent Nazis would be tried as war criminals, among other proposals.

Most conspicuous of these was Stalin’s promise that free elections would be held in Eastern Europe. This didn’t happen, and Communist governments were imposed on Bulgaria, Hungary, and several other states. As such, while the Yalta Conference would be followed by other, more formal assemblies to sort out the state of the world, it is this initial meeting that looms largest over post-war Europe. Indeed, it laid the basic foundations for the Cold War, which is the defining conflict of the late 20th century and our recent history.^[4]

6 Themistocles Convinces the Athenians to Build a Fleet

Themistocles was an Athenian politician and general born in 524 BC. Although we do not know precisely when it happened, we do know that at a particular meeting of the Athenian assembly, Themistocles convinced his countrymen to build a fleet of 200 triremes. He even referred to an obscure prophecy from the Oracle at Delphi that predicted that Athens would be saved by a “wooden wall.”

This prophecy was proven true when the Persian king Xerxes invaded Greece. His huge army was halted temporarily by Spartans at the legendary Battle of Thermopylae, but the real turning point was at sea: the Battle of Salamis. The total destruction of the Persian fleet, mainly because of Athenian ships, stopped the Persian advance in its tracks. Had the Persians defeated the alliance of Greek cities, then the world today would be completely different. Democracy—not just the concept but even the word itself—might (maybe would) not exist in its current form. As such, that meeting of the Athenian assembly should be considered one of the most important in history.^[5]

5 The Treaty of Rome

The European Union is the world’s second-biggest economy after the USA, and its population is the third-largest after India and China. In 2022, it is hard to imagine anything other than close cooperation between European countries. But war was the norm for a millennium. England, France, the German states, Spain, and Austro-Hungary are just a few of the great powers who fought constantly and viciously for centuries. The 18th century alone saw several million casualties in war, and there is no need to go over the horrors of the early 20th century.
https://www.thebalance.com/world-s-largest-economy-3306044

All that has now changed largely because of the European Union. Former enemies are now united not only by international agreements like NATO but also by a shared economy, open borders, and closer political ties than ever. None of this would have happened if not for the Treaty of Rome, signed in 1957 by France, West Germany, Belgium, Italy, Holland, and Luxembourg. The treaty founded the European Economic Community, which would one day become the European Union. Perhaps no meeting in history has brought nations closer together than the Treaty of Rome.^[6]

4 The Great Schism

The Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, by far the two biggest denominations of Christianity, were not always separate organizations. Their split goes back to the 11th century when existing theological and political disputes came to a dramatic conclusion. Although the Great Schism—as this split is called—was a long and gradual process, its defining moment took the form of a rather short meeting in 1054.

After years of constant tension, such as EasternChristianity’s roots in Greek philosophy compared with WesternChristianity’s focus on Roman law, the situation had become untenable. In April 1054, a papal delegation sent from Rome arrived in Constantinople, the home of Eastern Christianity. The planned meeting was cut short, however, when the papal delegates took issue with their hosts’ welcome and promptly stormed out. The subsequent religious division between West and East has since become a crucial element in European history. Indeed, it was only in 1965 that the mutual ex-communications of 1054 were finally revoked—over a thousand years later.^[7]

3 The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Less famous than the Treaty of Versailles, which dealt with the aftermath of the First World War, is the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Its effects, however, are still being felt to this day. AfterLenin’s Communist Revolution and the fall of the Tsar, Russia wanted to withdraw from World War One. The Central Powers—Germany, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria—accepted their withdrawal but foisted severe demands on the new Bolshevik Government. Eleven countries became independent across Europe and Asia, Germany gained territories in Poland and the Baltic, and Ukraine became a republic free from Russian control.

This treaty is of particular relevance because it has been used as a justification for Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Not only that, but it is arguable that the 2008 attack on Georgia was also partially justified by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Above all, it is beyond doubt that Putin personally views it as a huge mistake made by his ancestors and one which defines his own foreign policy goals.^[8]

2 The Roman Senate Declares Caesar an Enemy of Rome

On the 7th of January in 49 BC, the Roman Senate gathered to discuss the growing power of Julius Caesar. Years of political tension between Rome’s two greatest generals, Caesar and Pompey, had led the republic to the brink of war. After a hurried debate, the Senate ordered Caesar to relinquish his military command. Caesar himself described this as “insulting” and “savage” and—as we know—refused to obey. He was, therefore, declared an “enemy of the state,” and from that point, there was no going back.

This meeting led directly to the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, which itself resulted in Julius Caesar’s victory and assumption of the title of “Dictator for Life.” Although further civil wars followed, the Roman historian Suetonius believed that 49 BC marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. While it is impossible to know what would have happened if a civil war hadn’t broken out, it is clear that the Senate’s decision was of historical importance both for contemporary Rome and the rest of the world.^[9]

1 Henry VIII Launches the Royal Navy’s First Mission

It is well known that the British Empire was the largest empire in history. Its rise to power was far from inevitable, however. If not for a meeting in the early 16th century, there may never have been a British Empire at all.

Having inherited just five warships from his father, Henry VIII had built over forty by his death and officially established the “Navy Royal.” In 1512, nineteen-year-old Henry VIII met with his advisors to discuss a war with France. They urged him not to, but Henry VIII pressed ahead. The success of subsequent naval engagements with France vindicated Henry’s desire to invest in the Royal Navy. And the rest—England’s emergence as the world’s greatest seafaring nation and subsequent global power—is history. Not only did the British Empire make English the global lingua franca, but it also channeled philosophical and political concepts around the world and has been a major power ever since. Had Henry’s advisors convinced him otherwise, then all of this may not have happened.^[10]

Whether used to perpetrate evil or break free from the chains of tyranny, warfare has played an integral role in the human story. Examining this truth — despite the unpleasantness and atrocities often associated with combat — is necessary to help understand the past, present (such as what’s happening in Ukraine), and immediate future. 

For those interested in walking in the footsteps of history, the following sites are open to the public. 

10. Gettysburg

In early July 1863, infantry and cavalry forces under the command of General Robert E. Lee attempted to invade the North near the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The rebels intended to force a negotiated end to the Civil War — a conflict waged over slavery — and establish the Confederate States of America as an independent nation. They almost succeeded. 

The intense three-day battle became the turning point of the war, resulting in a combined total of more than 50,000 casualties. Despite a hard-fought Union victory, the bitterly divisive hostilities dragged on for another two years.

The battlefield later served as the setting for President Abraham Lincoln’s famous Gettysburg Address, a speech delivered at the dedication of the Soldiers’ National Cemetery. Today, these hallowed grounds are operated by the National Parks Services, allowing visitors to experience iconic landmarks, such as Little Round Top, Devil’s Den, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp’s Hill. 

9. The Somme 

The misery of trench warfare emerged as the defining element of “The Great War” — a strategy plagued by disease, rats, and horrific carnage. The Battle of the Somme would also present a painful lesson in futility. 

Fought in northern France near the River Somme, the large offensive saw Allied forces target the well-entrenched German forces on the Western Front. However, after months of extensive planning, things went wrong. Immediately. 

On July 1, 1916, the British Army suffered nearly 60,000 casualties on the first day of fighting. Over the next four and a half months, 1.3 million soldiers from both sides were either killed or wounded in one of the bloodiest battles in history. In the end, the slaughter yielded little territorial gains with no strategic importance.  

More than a century later, scars from the battle can still be seen carved into the earth. The Remembrance Trail, a circuit linking the towns of Albert and Péronne, features the remains of trenches, shell hole craters, and several cemeteries. 

8. Normandy

On June 6, 1944, troops comprised of American, British, and Canadian units landed on the beaches of Normandy in the largest amphibious invasion in history. The soldiers were quickly met with stiff resistance by impregnable German guns while attempting to liberate Nazi-occupied France during WWII. 

The morning of the battle saw paratroopers and glider troops initiate the action, dropping behind enemy lines to secure bridges and exit roads. Then, more than 150,000 Allied troops proceeded to storm and capture five designated beachheads. The war in Europe ended less than a year later.

The easily accessible memorials and museums in Normandy are a testament to astonishing heroism and sacrifice. Additionally, concrete pillboxes can still be seen along the coastline, serving as a cold reminder of the not-so-distant past.

7. Gallipoli 

Anzac Day, observed annually on April 25 in Australia and New Zealand, is a national day of remembrance. It originated as a tribute to the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), who took part in the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915, their first major engagement of WWI. The battle plan, designed to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war, ultimately represented a disastrous failure by British command, namely Winston Churchill, who was later forced to resign his post as Lord of the Admiralty. 

After landing on the western shores of the Gallipoli Peninsula in Turkey, Anzac troops suffered exceptionally high casualty rates, primarily from relentless machine gunfire. Soldiers who survived the initial onslaught faced additional challenges, such as food and water shortages, disease, sweltering heat, and the constant menace of swarming corpse flies. Finally, after eight months of pure Hell, military brass decided to end the hopeless stalemate and retreat. 

Then and now, the steep, rocky landscape of Gallipoli reveals a formidable natural barrier to invasion, underscoring the near-impossible task Allied soldiers encountered. In addition to the Anzac Cemetery, the battleground includes a 100 foot Helles Memorial on the tip of the peninsula overlooking the prized Dardanelles Straits.

6. Khe Sanh

As a prelude to the 1968 Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War, forces from the People’s Army of North Vietnam (PAVN) unleashed a massive artillery bombardment on the U.S. Marine garrison at Khe Sanh. There, American soldiers spent 77 days engaged in fierce combat in what became the deadliest battle of the Southeast Asia conflict. 

Although the military base held little strategic value, General Westmoreland, commanding officer of the U.S. Military Assistance Command in Vietnam (MACV), and US President Lyndon B. Johnson insisted on maintaining the position at all costs. The decision, however, proved costly. 

The siege on Khe Sanh had primarily served as a diversionary tactic, allowing North Vietnamese and Viet Cong units to launch a far more destructive series of attacks on Saigon and other urban centers. Meanwhile, 6000 marines at Khe Sanh managed to fend off more than 20,000 enemy soldiers. By the time the siege ended, American casualties had tallied 2,800 killed or wounded. Similar attrition soon followed involving the relief efforts. 

The government of Vietnam now allows travelers to explore the former compound and other war-related sites, including the Cu Chi tunnels. Built during the First Indochina War, the extensive, 150-mile labyrinth consisted of numerous rooms, an infirmary, a kitchen, food storage, and ammunition depots. The underground network also accommodated legions of rodents, insects, and venomous snakes — creatures who couldn’t care less that the war is over. Enter at your own risk. 

5. Berlin 

In the final days of WWII, Allied troops raced towards the German capital, determined to end six years of unimaginable violence and destruction by the Nazi war machine. But, as fate would have it, the Red Army got there first — and proceeded to plunder at will — barbarity that saw Russian soldiers rape an estimated two million German women. 

Eventually, the Allies carved up the spoils into various sectors while setting the wheels in motion for The Cold War. Eight decades later, a wide assortment of war remembrances are scattered throughout the rebuilt city, including vestiges of Checkpoint Charlie and the Berlin Wall.

Although Hitler’s infamous Führerbunker has long since been demolished, visitors can still descend into the bowels of a similar WWII bunker. The guided tour chillingly recreates the subterranean complex where the German dictator spent his final days before committing suicide. 

4. Agincourt 

With its current population of around 300 residents, the sleepy village of Agincourt is situated in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France, approximately three hours by car from Paris. The tranquil setting and pastoral landscape contrast sharply from the chaos and bloodshed that occurred here on October 25, 1415, during the Battle of Agincourt.

As part of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453), this late medieval battle saw heavily outnumbered English and Welsh soldiers rely heavily on the longbow to defeat the French Army. Shakespeare later immortalized the epic clash in his play, Henry V, which includes the famous battle speech that has since been imitated in countless war films, from Braveheart to Zulu. 

The site boasts the newly expanded “Agincourt 1415” Center, featuring interactive displays, weaponry, armor, and video presentations designed to give the visitor a feel for “the smell of blood and roses.” For those looking for something a bit more appetizing, fresh-baked croissants and cafe au lait are served at the nearby Boulangerie Evrard Chez Elodie et Nicolas.

3. The Killing Fields of Cambodia 

Between 1975 and 1979, more than two million people were killed in Cambodia by the ruling Communist Party of Kampuchea — better known as the Khmer Rouge. Several mass graves from this massacre can be found on the outskirts of Phnom Penh, the nation’s capital and largest city. 

Tragically, Cambodia remains one of the world’s worst-affected states from contamination by mines, cluster munition remnants, and other explosive remnants of war (ERW), including ordnance, dropped by American bombers on secret missions during the Vietnam War. 

One of the more poignant memorials of this ancient kingdom’s troubled past is the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum, housed on the grounds of a former secondary school transformed into an interrogation and detention center by the Khmer Rouge regime. Located in the heart of Phnom Penh, “it preserves evidence of a tragic period in Cambodian history with the aim of encouraging visitors to be messengers of peace.”

2. Little Big Horn 

Located 60 miles southeast of Billings, Montana, an abundance of memorials and tourist attractions mark the battle of ‘Custer’s Last Stand.’ In June 1876, the US 7th Cavalry, under Lt. Col George Custer, was annihilated by Sioux Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors. Their victory, however, would have dire consequences. 

Custer’s death spurred the US government to escalate its systematic genocide of Native American tribes. Those not murdered were often exposed to deadly germs and diseases like smallpox, influenza, and measles. 

Regardless, romanticized tales of the US cavalry have been endlessly portrayed in film, TV, and books. However, these yarns usually omit how Custer’s arrogance and questionable leadership not only got himself killed but also two of his brothers, a nephew, and a brother-in-law. 

The Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument is open year-round except for Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year’s Day. In addition to the actual battlefield, the complex features a museum, visitor’s center, and the Custer National Cemetery.

1. Auschwitz 

One of the first things you see when approaching the front gate of Auschwitz is a sign which reads, “Arbeit Macht Frei” (“Work Makes You Free”). The cruel irony sets the uneasy tone when touring the largest Nazi concentration camp and extermination center.

The site is located on the edge of the southern Polish city of O?wi?cim, roughly 30 miles from the international airport in Kraków. The authentically preserved grounds consist of two parts of the former camp, Auschwitz and Birkenau, and include remains of the notorious gas chambers. Visitors are obliged to behave with due solemnity and respect — in other words, not the place to take duck-lipped selfies for your Instagram account. 

The horrors of the Holocaust are difficult to process — but’s it’s an important lesson from which all humankind can benefit. Perhaps Spanish philosopher George Santayana said it best: “Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.”

Alongside diseases like cholera and smallpox, tuberculosis was one of the world’s biggest killers during the 19th century. Anyone unfortunate enough to contract the illness often didn’t survive it. Also known as “Consumption” or the “White Plague,” its symptoms made it easy to spot anyone afflicted by it. Extreme weight loss, a pale and fragile appearance, and the coughing up of blood all added to the strangely romanticized “tubercular aesthetic” that had a huge influence over the Victorians.

Here are ten of the ways in which the debilitating disease shaped Victorian society.

10 High Death Rates

The most obvious way in which tuberculosis affected Victorian society was, of course, the number of lives it took. It’s even believed to be the leading cause of death by any microbial pathogen in history. At the turn of the 19th century, around 50 million people worldwide were openly infected with it. What the Victorians didn’t know for a long time is that the disease, which attacks the lungs and damages various organs, is highly infectious. The poor sanitation and hygiene standards of the time created the perfect breeding ground for its proliferation.

Two of the worst affected places were the cities of London and New York. In Victorian England, it claimed around one in five lives of the entire population, with similar numbers in the United States. As one of the leading causes of death during the 19th century, it’s little wonder tuberculosis affected so many areas of society.^[1]

9 Beauty and Aesthetics

When tuberculosis was at its peak during the early to mid-19th century, it was heavily glamorized, despite it causing around 25% of deaths in Europe. Some of the physically apparent symptoms of the disease, such as emaciation and wasting away, were aligned with existing Victorian ideas of attractiveness. Subsequently, tuberculosis quickly became associated with beauty. Sufferers usually had a thin, fragile frame, pale skin with rosy cheeks, red lips, and sparkling eyes. These features were the ideal beauty standard of the time, which left many wishing to imitate it through the use of makeup.

Among the upper class of Victorian society, it was generally believed that a woman’s level of attractiveness could determine how likely she was to suffer from tuberculosis. The disease simply enhanced features considered beautiful in women. Since makeup was usually associated with prostitutes and actresses, however, most upper-class ladies actually hoped to contract the disease!^[2]

8 The Fashion

With the disease and its effects having become entwined with the ideals of beauty, tuberculosis soon played a role in the nature of 19th-century fashion. During the first half of the 1800s, consumption was believed to be caused by “bad airs” in the environment, as well as the result of a hereditary predisposition. At this time, when admiration for the pale, wasting appearance was at its peak, fashion trends tended to emulate and highlight symptoms of the disease. Pointed corsets were worn by women to emphasize tiny waists and were paired with huge, voluminous skirts to further show off the waifish look.

When tuberculosis came to be recognized as a bacterial disease during the second half of the 19th century, it still continued to have a huge influence over fashion. Large-scale public health campaigns were implemented in an effort to prevent the spread, and doctors claimed that large skirts could sweep up germs from the street and bring them into the home. Corsets were also criticized for limiting blood circulation and the movement of the lungs, which was quickly reconsidered to exacerbate tuberculosis. Even men’s fashion came under attack. Extravagant, bushy beards, sideburns, and mustaches that were at the height of fashion at the beginning of the century, were deemed too dangerous. The clean-shaven look was initially adopted primarily by physicians and surgeons, but the rest of male society soon followed.^[3]

7 Literature

The prevalence of tuberculosis within 19th-century European society led to its depiction in the various celebrated literary works of the time. These works certainly helped to shape the romantic image that the Victorians held of the disease. Tragic fictional icons who fell to the disease were common in 19th-century literature, including Katerina Ivanova in Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment and Fantine from Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables.

A strange belief about tuberculosis also surrounded celebrated writers of the time. The prevalence of the disease meant that numerous individuals of extraordinary talent were also among its victims. This led to the notion that there was a link between tuberculosis and creative genius. Some notable writers among the mass of sufferers included Robert Louis Stevenson, John Keats, and Emily Brontë. All were said to have improved creative power as their physical conditions deteriorated. Unsurprisingly, this caused many literary and artistic types of the time to wish to contract tuberculosis.^[4]

6 Entertainment

The “tragic beauty” associated with tuberculosis also worked its way into the sphere of 19th-century entertainment. The upper crust of Victorian society would often frequent the opera, where heart-breaking stories of the beautiful victims of consumption would be portrayed. Two popular operas that explored the themes of the disease included La Traviata and Giacomo Puccini’s La Boheme.

Based on a novel, the tragic story of La Traviata is a particularly romantic representation of tuberculosis. It follows the tale of two lovers: the young and beautiful courtesan Violetta and her secret admirer Alfredo. The story’s themes of love, joy, youth, and beauty are accompanied by the looming threat of disease and death, with Violetta’s consumption playing an increasingly large role as the tale progresses. Given that tuberculosis was so often represented within romantic contexts in the arts, it’s little wonder that the Victorians came to view it as a romantic disease.^[5]

5 Art

As with other areas of the creative sphere, the imagery depicted in many artworks produced by 19th-century artists was influenced by their own experiences of tuberculosis. Works of the 19th-century artist Ferdinand Hodler reflect his tragic childhood encounters with the disease, which had robbed him of his entire family. Some of his most significant works in this respect include “The Convalescent,” “Night Hodler,” and “A Troubled Soul.” It was a similar story for Edvard Munch, which inspired his works such as “The Sick Child” and “Sick Chamber.” Works such as these and others were significant in developing the more morbidly tragic notions that the Victorians associated with the illness.

As with literary artists, tuberculosis was associated with artistic genius on the canvas too. It was speculated that the low-grade fever accompanying tuberculosis might have been responsible for heightened perception and bursts of inspiration and insight.^[6]

4 An Obsession with Death

Death was a huge part of life for the Victorians, and as such, they were obsessed with it. Given that tuberculosis was one of society’s biggest killers (although, admittedly, there were a few!), the disease likely played a small yet significant role in fueling this obsession. The Victorians were ritualistic in their approach toward death and mourning, and it became a way of life for most.

The deathbed itself became an important focal point around which the departed’s last words were highly valued. In fact, “deathbed watches” and notions of a “good death” often featured prominently in the literature of the time, particularly the works of Charles Dickens. Complex codes of mourning were in place, including the requirement that a grieving woman must only wear black for exactly twelve months and a day. Jewelry created from the locks of the deceased’s hair was also produced, along with other mementos, such as death masks and portraits, which were given a place of pride around the home. In Victorian society, death, loss, and grief were simply seen as an inevitable and integral part of life.^[7]

3 Science

Although tuberculosis has been around for thousands of years, it wasn’t until the mid-19th century that scientists began to recognize that its transmission wasn’t simply the result of “bad airs” or genetic predisposition. It was the likes of the French chemist Louis Pasteur and the British surgeon Joseph Lister who developed germ theory around this time. However, while they were key figures in determining that germs cause disease, it was the German physician Robert Koch who first linked specific bacteria to certain diseases.

It was in 1882 that Koch announced his discovery that Tubercle bacillus caused tuberculosis. His experiments involving culturing and inoculating animals with the bacilli completely revolutionized the understanding of the disease and others like it. He also found that a mixture of saliva and mucus coughed up from the respiratory tract was the main way of spreading the disease. This led to huge changes in scientific understanding and the fields of medicine, hygiene, and sanitation in Victorian society.^[8]

2 Medicine and Hygiene

Koch’s discovery meant that Victorian society became acutely aware of the fact that tuberculosis was not only contagious but also very much tied to personal and public standards of hygiene. This meant the previous reliance on treatments such as a “change of air” and bloodletting would no longer cut it. Instead, public health measures were put in place to stop the spread of tuberculosis and other contagious diseases. These included the provision of clean water, waste removal, and separate sewage systems. New legislation was also implemented for improved housing to reduce overcrowding.

Within the medical field, improvements took place very rapidly. Technological equipment was developed to detect and treat diseases, and sterilization and antiseptic surgical procedures started to take place. In addition, specialized surgical instruments and techniques began to be developed. Ultimately, Koch’s discoveries started a chain reaction that led to a complete overhaul of the Victorian medical profession and the growth of the medical industry.^[9]

1 Social Reform

With growing awareness of the importance of hygiene and decent sanitation to prevent the spread of tuberculosis, it quickly became apparent that the poorer classes were the most at risk. Although concerns surrounding the living and working conditions of the poor were by no means initiated by Koch’s discovery, it certainly emphasized the importance of the matter. Fifty new statutes on housing were, therefore, put into place during the second half of the 19th century. The main target was to reduce overcrowding and improve the overall standard of living for the poorest members of society.

Various measures, reforms, and legislation were also put into place or updated to help the working class. Penny savings banks were established, early forms of insurance policies were offered, and communal resources were made available to assist the poorest members of Victorian society. Their vulnerability to tuberculosis and other diseases had further highlighted a burgeoning need to improve their living standards.^[10]

Not many people are aware of the contributions made by several secret societies in shaping the world as we know today. For the most part, their endeavours are not justly recorded in our history books. The secret societies listed here have sometimes managed to push their country forward and sometimes backwards. Never-the-less, they helped shape the world. Now, let’s take a look into 10 secret societies that shaped our world:

10. The Germanenorden (Germany)

Germanenorden established in 1812 was a society born out of their adversity towards Jews and their belief in the Aryan race superiority. Therefore it was not surprising when in 1916 they adopted the Swastika symbol. They recruited members based on evidences of their Aryan ancestry by proof of their birth certificates among other things, which was followed by initiation rituals where members were to dress up like nymphs, knights, kings et al.

The group changed into the Thule Society in 1918 and assisted in defeating communalism. They further renamed themselves into the German Workers Party. In 1920 Adolf  Hitler took over the society and made sure to do away the unnecessary absurd rituals.

9. Afrikaner Broederbond (South Africa)

The Afrikaner Broederbond group, founded in 1918, went one step ahead and had actually aimed at seizing control over the whole of South Africa. Membership was only opened to white men over 25 years of age who were guided by their self-promoted Afrikaner nationalism seeking to dominate over the economy, culture and politics of South Africa. There managed to influence the Reunited National Party so much so that it irked the prime minister who called the party as “nothing more than the secret Afrikaner Broederbond operating in public.” And they started controlling the South African Bureau of Racial Affairs in 1947.

Their rise to power was astounding and almost every important political person was a member of the society. This gave rise to a saying, “The South African government today is the Broederbond and the “Broederbond is the government.” It was only after Nelson Mandela’s election in 1994 that the society began seeing downhill.

After this they renamed themselves into Afrikanerbond and now, are open to include members irrespective of their colour, religion, gender et al with a goal of making South Africa a better country.

8. The Carbonari (Italy)

No one knows how or exactly when the Carbonari came into existence. But as speculation goes, it originated around the time when the Congress of Vienna was deciding on what to do with the territories conquered by Napoleon. By 1815, Italy was cut into several pieces. This Italian secret group is said to have had 60,000 members and they rose in revolt against King Ferdinand who was ruling over Sicily and Naples. He soon had to give up his power. This was followed by the whole of Italy rising up into a widespread movement that eventually ended in the unification of Italy in 1861.

7. La Trinitaria (Dominican Republic)

The La Trinitaria, or The Trinity was founded in July 1838 in Dominican Republic which was under Haitian rule since the year 1822. The Republican citizen wanted freedom from the clutches of the Haitians. It was among such sentiments that Juan Pablo Duarte rose as a national leader and founded The Trinity. He was only 25 years old and his secret society comprised of only 8 members.

The society aimed at spreading national sentiment and achieving independence. They used cryptic methods in communication and pseudonym to keep their existence hidden. Besides helping other rebel groups they had attempted at a revolution in 1843, which failed. The members were imprisoned while Duarte fled the country. But The Trinity’s audacious work had set the ball rolling and while they remained dormant, Republicans rose up a fought until Dominican Republic was declared free on February 27, 1844. Unfortunately, when Juan Pablo Duarte returned to preside over the country he had helped to create, he was overthrown by a military coup. Duarte died in exile in 1864.

6. The Hawaiian League (Hawaii)

The Hawaiian League was formed by 200 affluent Europeans and Americans discontented with the Hawaiian ruler King Kalakaua. They alleged the king of being too extravagant so they hatched a plan to overthrow the monarchy with backing from the American businessmen. In 1887, the secret society came into existence with a constitution written by Lorrin A. Thurston, though unfortunately the document didn’t survive the passage of time.

With 405 members and alliance with the Honolulu Rifles, they managed to overthrow Queen Liliuokalani in the year 1893. For 5 years, Hawaii remained a republic until it became a territory of the US in 1898. In 1959 Hawaii was officially recognized as the 50th state of the US.

5. Filiki Etaireia (Greece)

In 1814, Nikalaos Skoufas and Athanasios Tsakalov, together along with a few other merchants founded the Filiki Etaireia (“Friendly Brotherhood”) to overthrow the Ottoman rule in their country. The society took their ‘secret’ part very seriously and when one of their member named Nikolaos Galatis began beating drums out in the open about the existence of their society, he was murdered by the Brotherhood.

The society had a very complicated recruiting system with six level of membership, the top level of which was occupied with men of great education and money. With the help of a Russian officer named Alexander Ypsilantis, the Brotherhood initiated the Greek Revolution in the Spring of 1821. Unfortunately, into the very beginning of the war, the secret society dissembled but the revolution ended with Greece winning their independence.

4. Katipunan (Philippines)

Katipunan came into existance in the Philippines in 1892 with the goal of opposing the Spanish domination. The single worded name is actually the abbreviated form of Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang Na Katipunan Nang Manga Anak Nang Bayan that translates into the ‘Supreme Worshipful Association of the Sons of the People.’

This society had a male-only membership that was inherited by the sons from their fathers. They had all sorts of rituals and codes as expected form a secret society but the singularity of their rituals was that they signed every document with their own blood, beginning with their founding document back in July 7th 1892. For many years thousand of the members remained mum without giving a clue as to their existence to the Spanish authority. When their secret was out they overthrew their concealment and went for an all-out rebellion that ended with the Filipinos gaining their independence in June 12, 1898.

3. Irish Republican Brotherhood (Irb)

James Stephens along with a few other fellowmen founded the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood on St Patrick’s Day in 1858. They had centers in as many as seven different countries – Canada, USA, England, Australia (that was under the British Empire), New Zealand and South America. Each center had a colonel with nine captains, nine sergeants and nine privates. Each recruit knew only his superior so as to keep their identities hidden.

By 1910, the brotherhood had several Irish members and under the leadership of Thomas Clarke rose up in revolt in 1916, now known as the Easter Rising. The rising, however, failed. A few years later IBR lead the Anglo-Irish war that eventually saw the Irish Free State being created in 1921.

2. The Black Hand (Serbia)

Unification Or Death, was a Serbian organization better known as the Black Hand. It was founded on May 9, 1911 to fight against the Ottoman rule. All 2,500 members of the society took oath to put secrecy of the group before their own lives. They operated on different levels and took significant steps to make sure each member was not in contact with most of the other members so that when one member was caught he would have no information to offer about the other members.

The Black Hand was leaded by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijevic, also known as ‘Apis’ after the bull deity of Ancient Egypt. And it was he who planned the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand that led to the breaking out of World War I.

1. The Union Of Salvation (Russia)

The society was founded by six military officers and friends whose aims were, initially, rather vague and dissimilar form each other. When the Russian Czar died, the Union under the leadership of Pavel Pestel organised the Decembrist Uprising of 1825 to prevent his descendents from taking over the power. The uprising saw around three thousand Russians attempting to usurp Czar Nicholas I on his very first day in power which failed with disastrous consequence like censorship for press and education, establishment of spy networks et al. This uprising however was responsible for sowing the seeds for the next revolution, 100 years later in 1917, when the Russian Empire fell.