Scotland is a small country, but its impact on the global stage has been massive, particularly when it comes to inventions. With a population of only 5.47 million people (less than the population of Minnesota), you might be surprised to learn just how many inventions came from Scottish minds.

Well-known Scottish inventors include Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, and Alexander Fleming, who discovered penicillin. But besides these two great Alexanders, Scotland has been home to much more than just the creation of haggis and bagpipes. This list is far from exhaustive but rounds up 10 of the best world-changing inventions that you might not have known were created by Scots.

Related: 10 Life-Changing Inventions That Were Discovered By Accident

10 The Toaster

This might seem hard to believe, but the electric toaster was actually invented before sliced bread hit the shelves. Sliced bread was introduced in 1928, but the first electric toaster arrived 35 years earlier, in 1893. We have Scotsman Alan MacMasters to thank for the toaster, which he called the Eclipse Toaster. This original toaster only toasted one side of the bread, though, so people had to flip the bread over manually halfway through.

Initially, the toaster was not that successful due to electricity not being widespread at the time and sliced bread having not been invented. It was also a challenge to develop a heating element that could sustain repeated high temperatures that wouldn’t eventually burst into flames. This problem was solved in 1905 by Albert Marsh from Illinois, who created a filament wire with a nickel and chromium alloy. By 1913 toasters could toast both sides of the bread without the manual flip, and by 1921 a Minnesotan named Charles Strite created the pop-up toaster.^[1]

9 The Hypodermic Syringe

Hypodermic syringes are one of the most important medical technologies ever developed. Attempts at intravenous injection go back to at least 1656, with experiments done by Renaissance man Christopher Wren (he was an architect, anatomist, astronomer, geometer, and mathematician-physicist, and I don’t know when he found time to sleep). Wren used a goose quill as a needle and an animal bladder as a syringe to inject dogs with opium.

The first recognizable hypodermic syringe was developed by the Scottish physician Alexander Wood in 1853. Remarkably, a French surgeon named Charles Gabriel Pravaz independently developed a similar invention in the same year. Large needles attached to tubing were used at this time, but both Wood and Pravaz improved upon this design.

Both men created a fine needle that fit onto a syringe, but there were differences. Pravaz’s syringe was made of silver and used a screw mechanism to inject the medicine. Wood’s was more closely related to modern syringes, as it was made of glass—to see and measure the contents—and used a plunger to inject the medicine. While this was a large medical step forward, many years passed before the danger of infection via needles was understood and the process of sterilization was adopted.^[2]

8 The Bicycle and the Pneumatic Tire

So this entry is two in one, but they go together like peanut butter and jelly: the bicycle and the pneumatic tire (admittedly, that doesn’t sound as catchy). The first bicycle was invented by a German, Baron Karl von Drais. It was delightfully called a “dandy horse” but, unfortunately, did not feature pedals. As a result, the rider had to push their feet on the ground in order to move them forward.

The inventor of the modern pedal-driven bike was Kirkpatrick Macmillan, who from his name alone was obviously Scottish. Macmillan was fascinated by the dandy horse but wanted a better means of propulsion, so he endeavored to attach pedals to the contraption. It is thought that by 1839 he had succeeded, though whether he was the first creator or merely a copycat is unknown. Bicycle expert Alastair Dodds explains that either way, “it is almost certain that the inventor was Scots.”

The first pneumatic tire was patented in 1845 by Scottish inventor Robert William Thomson, but it was never practically applied. That did not occur until 1888 when John Boyd Dunlop, also Scottish, realized that a pneumatic tire could make bicycle rides more comfortable. That name should be familiar to anyone who has bought car tires as three brands dominate the market: Michelin, Goodyear, and Dunlop.^[3]

7 ATMs

Multiple people attempted to create automated teller machines, or ATMs, during the 1960s, but the man who created the version we use today is James Goodfellow from Paisley. He considered a variety of solutions to ensure that only a verified customer could access money from a machine, including fingerprints (more on that next), voice recognition, and retinal patterns. All of these suggestions were discarded because of technical practicalities or cost.

Goodfellow eventually designed a system with a machine-readable encrypted card and a Personal Identification Number. The invention was patented in 1966, was installed nationwide soon after, and was so successful that it is now ubiquitous worldwide. Also, if you’ve been saying ATM machine and PIN number for your whole life, then you know now that it’s just ATM and PIN, as the extra word at the end is redundant.^[4]

6 Forensic Fingerprinting

Life for criminals became much harder at the turn of the 20th century thanks to Henry Faulds from North Ayrshire, who thought up forensic fingerprinting. While on an archaeological dig in Japan, he noticed fingerprints on ancient clay fragments. He became convinced that the pattern of ridges on a person’s fingertips was unique and thus could aid the police in identifying criminals. Faulds had first-hand experience of the usefulness of fingerprinting when he assisted the Tokyo police in identifying a burglar.

Faulds published his research on the forensic possibilities of fingerprinting in Nature magazine in 1880 and sought the help of Charles Darwin (yes, as in the man who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection) to get the idea off the ground. However, Darwin had no interest and passed the information onto Francis Galton. Galton published works on the idea starting with a paper in 1888 but failed to credit Faulds as the starting point for his research. As a result, Faulds never received the widespread recognition that he felt he deserved.^[5]

5 The Refrigerator

Food preservation, such as drying and fermenting, dates back to ancient times, maybe as early as 10,000-12,000 years ago, according to some anthropologists. But change was in the air in 1755 when the Scottish professor and physician William Cullen created the first artificial refrigerator. Cullen used a pump to create a vacuum over a container of diethyl ether and then heated the ether, thus absorbing the heat from the surrounding air and cooling the container.

Cullen’s experiment was purely scientific, though, and he did not pursue the practical application of his creation. But it was his research that provided the starting point for the commercialization of artificial refrigeration. Of course, the impact of refrigeration goes well beyond food storage; it’s useful for anything that needs to be kept cold and even allowed for the creation of towns and cities in previously inhospitably hot locations.^[6]

4 Color Photographs

You might know that Scotsman John Logie Baird was responsible for not only the television but also for color television. But did you know that a Scotsman was also responsible for color photographs? In 1861 the mathematician James Clerk Maxwell created the foundation for all practical color processes: the three-color method.

The first color photograph was of a tartan ribbon (very appropriate given that it was the experiment of a Scot) for one of Maxwell’s lectures on color theory. Maxwell realized that all colors could be counterfeited to the human eye by mixing three colors. The actual picture taking was done by Thomas Sutton, who photographed the ribbon three times through red, blue, and green filters. When the images were combined into one composite photograph, the blend recreated the true color of the ribbon.

A decade earlier, the American minister Levi Hill claimed to have produced a color photograph, but it was largely fraudulent. His process, called heliochromy, had only a limited ability to reproduce color, so Hill hand-applied color to his photo. Therefore, Maxwell takes the crown.

Maxwell is actually better known for his advancements in the field of physics. His research on electromagnetism was vital for the creation of technology such as the telephone, radio, television, microwaves, and x-rays. Albert Einstein also used it when he was developing the Theory of Relativity.^[7]

3 The Steam Engine

The steam engine was really created by two men: the Englishman Thomas Newcomen, who in 1712 created the atmospheric engine, the first practical fuel-burning engine; and the Scot James Watt, who improved the steam engine to such an extent that he is better known today as its originator.

By 1765 Watt had designed an engine with a separate condenser which improved efficiency. That may not sound impressive, but by 1778, Watt’s design could be applied to power machinery in mines, mills, and factories instead of relying on water power. He was an essential figure in the Industrial Revolution, and his influence is still felt today. It was Watt who popularized the term “horsepower,” and his contribution to the world was deemed so significant that the “watt” unit of power was named after him.^[8]

2 Modern Anesthetic Marvel

If you have had an operation that required a general anesthetic in the last 30 years, then Scotsman John B. Glen is why you (hopefully!) didn’t feel any pain. Glen was originally a vet, but in 1972, he joined ICI Pharmaceuticals (later acquired by AstraZeneca) as a research biologist, investigating a replacement for the anesthetic thiopental. This drug was good at knocking patients out but left them feeling sick and dizzy when they regained consciousness.

In 1973 Glen realized that propofol, a substance that was already synthesized by the company, was fast-acting but also left the system quickly. Glen explains that during trials for the drug, they “had mice walking on little rods like tightropes, and they regained their balance 3 minutes after waking up from propofol.” It took 13 years to get the drug right, but it is now so widely used that the World Health Organization lists it as an “essential medicine.” So while not exactly the creator of the drug, his work essentially saved it from a life sitting on a dusty shelf in a storeroom somewhere—or something like that.^[9]

1 The Flushing Toilet

Scotland lays claim to not only the earliest indoor toilet but also the invention of the flushing mechanism that is the foundation of modern sanitation. Some of the earliest known indoor toilets are found on Scotland’s Orkney Islands, at the Neolithic site of Skara Brae. The stone huts of this 3,000 B.C. village featured a very basic sewer system, where waste was flushed into a drain with pots of water. Even earlier, toilets in the Indus Valley region also included a pipe system to carry the soiled water away. But these early models required someone to manually pour water into the basin to “flush.”

Contrary to popular belief, Thomas Crapper did not invent the flushing toilet; rather, he was one of the leading manufacturers who later modified what had already been invented. Instead, Englishman Sir John Harrington (ancestor of Games of Thrones actor Kit Harrington) is usually credited as the true inventor. While Harrington’s Renaissance-era toilet featured many of the trappings of the modern toilet, he, unfortunately, failed to solve the smell issue.

The award for solving that problem goes to Edinburgh-born Alexander Cumming, who in 1775 developed and patented the “S bend” to block out bad smells from the connecting sewers. He also linked the water valve to the flush mechanism, which allowed users to empty the pan and refill it with fresh water with the pull of one handle.^[10]

Colombia, Poland, Venezuela, Ireland, Sweden, Morocco—the list goes on. For hundreds of years, Scottish soldiers have taken the opportunity to earn money by fighting in foreign lands. In other words, they were mercenaries. Sometimes these Scottish soldiers of fortune supported established monarchs, while on other occasions, they fought with rebels anxious to upend the status quo. But wherever they went and whoever they fought, the results most often were tales well worth the telling.

10 Peter McAleese

A Glaswegian born in 1942, Peter Maltese led a band of mercenary fighters to Colombia in 1989. McAleese had an impressive pedigree for his role as the commander of a motley bunch of soldiers of fortune. He’d served with Britain’s feted elite force, the SAS. In a documentary film about his life, McAleese reinforced his image as an all-around tough guy, saying, “I was trained to kill by the Army, but the fighting instinct came from Glasgow.”

McAleese left the army in 1969 and drifted into the shadowy world of mercenary fighters, seeing action in African hotspots such as Angola and what was then Rhodesia and is now Zimbabwe. But why did he travel to Colombia? In a barely credible turn of events, he’d been hired by the Cali Cartel to kill the leader of its main rival, the Medellin Cartel. In other words, McAleese’s mission was no less than to assassinate Pablo Escobar. The Scotsman and his buddies were to helicopter into Escobar’s compound. But McAleese’s chopper crashed in the Andes, injuring him badly. The plot was aborted. McAleese escaped and died in 2021, aged 79. Escobar was killed in a gun battle in 1993.^[1]

9 Gregor MacGregor, Prince of Poyais

Born on Christmas Eve 1786, Gregor MacGregor launched his military career conventionally enough by joining the British Army’s 57th Foot Regiment while still only a 16-year-old. The young man saw action in the Napoleonic Wars and eventually attained the rank of major before hanging up his sword in 1810. For his next adventure, his eyes turned to South America, and he arrived in Venezuela in 1812.
MacGregor was acquainted with the revolutionary leader General Francisco de Miranda, who accepted him into his forces as a colonel in the fight against the Spanish colonialists. MacGregor, who had awarded himself a knighthood, rose to be a general in the Venezuelan Army. His exploits included an attempt to seize Florida from the Spanish and a bid to found a colony in Nicaragua.

His most grandiose scheme, however, saw him taking the title of Prince of Poyais as he developed a colony in the Bay of Honduras. To do so, he enticed gullible British investors and prospective colonizers with false claims. They lost all their money, and the colony was a total disaster. Somehow, “Prince” Gregor walked away unscathed.^[2]

8 Patrick Leopold Gordon of Auchleuchries

Born in the northeast of Scotland in 1635, Patrick Gordon first left his native land while still a teenager. He traveled to the Polish city of what was then Danzig and is now Gdańsk, where he enrolled at a Jesuit college. A war between Poland and Sweden erupted in 1655, and that was when the young Gordon first became a mercenary. It seems he was none too choosy about who his employers were since he fought on both sides during the hostilities.

In 1661, Gordon walked away from both Poland and Sweden, electing to join the Russian army. With the rank of major, he gave useful service in 1661 by crushing civil disturbances in Moscow. After Peter the Great came to power in 1696, Gordon became a key adviser and even friend to the young Tsar, earning the rank of general. He played an important part in suppressing an attempted palace coup against Peter in 1698. He died a year later.^[3]

7 James Francis Edward Keith

Keith was a high-born Scot, the second son of the 9th Earl Marischal of Scotland. Despite that, he was forced to leave his homeland after becoming involved in the unsuccessful Jacobite attempt to seize the British throne in 1715. Fleeing to France, Keith ended up in Spain, where he became an officer in the Spanish Army. But since he was a Protestant in a Catholic country, his prospects were poor, so he left for Russia.

In 1728, Keith was made a colonel of a Russian regiment and fought against the Swedes. After his time with the Russians, it seems that Keith was keen for new pastures, and he joined the Prussian Army, seeing extensive action in the Seven Years’ War that convulsed much of Europe and North America. By now a Field Marshall, Keith fought at the 1758 Battle of Hochkirch in Germany when 80,000 Austrians faced 31,000 Prussians. The Austrians routed the Prussians killing 9,000 of them, including Keith.^[4]

6 Archibald Ruthven of Forteviot

Archibald Ruthven was born into a distinguished Scottish family—his father was Lord Ruthven. In 1572, Ruthven sailed for Scandinavia, where he accepted a post in the army of the Swedish king, Johan III. Johan’s first order was that the Scot should return to his homeland to recruit 2,000 mercenaries. In the event, he returned to Sweden with nearly 4,000 soldiers.

Ruthven became embroiled in a bitter dispute about his soldiers’ pay which resulted in the execution of one Scottish officer for embezzlement, Hugh Cahun. Before he was put to death, Cahun accused Ruthven, baselessly as far as we know, of plotting the assassination of King Johan. Apparently in the clear, Ruthven now sailed for Livonia on the Baltic Sea with his troops. There, a bitter dispute with their German allies resulted in the deaths of some 1,500 men. The upshot of this deadly squabble was that Ruthven was again accused of plotting against Johan. Despite his denials, the unfortunate Scot was imprisoned and died in jail.^[5]

5 Sir Harry Aubrey de Vere Maclean

Born into a well-to-do Scots family in 1848, the splendidly named Sir Harry Aubrey de Vere Maclean joined the British Army in 1869 and saw service in Canada, Gibraltar, and Bermuda. After seven years in the army, Maclean resigned his commission and accepted the position of a drill instructor in the army of the Sultan of Morocco, Mawlay Hassan.

Not long after he arrived in Tangier, Mclean took command of 400 infantry troops, with an increase in pay dependent on him learning Arabic, which he did. Abdul-Aziz succeeded Hussain as the sultan and retained Mclean’s services, sending him on missions to various Moroccan provinces. But life in Morocco was not without its perils; in 1907, the Scotsman was kidnapped and held for ransom for seven months. The following year Abdul-Aziz was deposed by his own brother Mawlay Abdul-Hafiz. The new sultan was minded to keep Mclean on, but the two couldn’t agree on a contract, so Mclean resigned, living out his days in Tangier until his death in 1920.^[6]

4 Peter Duffy

Raised in the northern Scottish town of Elgin, Peter Duffy was born into some privilege in 1941. He was sent to Gordonstoun, the same private school that King Charles attended a few years after. Later in life, Duffy was second-in-command of a group of mercenaries who went to engineer a coup in Seychelles Island in 1981.

Duffy’s commander was “Mad” Mike Hoare, a notorious mercenary of many years. Hoare and Duffy led a group of fighters drawn from ex-Rhodesian soldiers and ex-South African special forces. Armed to the teeth, the men flew into Seychelles aboard a commercial flight. Unfortunately for Duffy and his comrades, an airport official noticed an AK-47 in one man’s luggage. A gunfight ensued, and Duffy and others made good their escape by hijacking an Air India plane, leaving behind one dead comrade. Several of the conspirators were tried the next year in South Africa. Duffy got five years, Hoare 10. Duffy died a broken man in 1981.^[7]

3 George Sinclair

In 1612, Captain George Sinclair sailed from Scotland with a troop of Scottish mercenaries that he’d recruited in Caithness in the Scottish Highlands. They were to join the cause of King Charles IX of Sweden, who was fighting his neighbor Christian IV of Denmark. Sinclair and some 300 men landed in Norway with the intention of marching to Sweden.

The Scots had not bargained for the possibility that the Norwegians might not take kindly to a mercenary force tramping across their country. As it happened, the Norwegians were not at all happy. Seven days after Sinclair and his men had arrived on Norwegian soil, a local force launched a deadly ambush. As the Scots entered a narrow valley, the Norwegians rolled boulders down the slopes to block their escape routes. Once the rocks had been unleashed, musketeers picked off the mercenaries, killing more than 150. Sinclair was shot dead by a man named Berdon Sejelstad. The Scotsman’s wife and child, who had unwisely accompanied the ill-fated expedition, were also killed, although not before the woman had stabbed one of the Norwegians to death.^[8]

2 Redshanks

The Redshanks were mercenaries mostly recruited from the islands of the Hebrides off the coast of northwest Scotland, although mainland Highlanders joined in as well. In the 16th century, they went to fight for the Irish as they opposed the English invaders of the Emerald Isle. Life in the Highlands and islands of Scotland could be very tough, and men were glad to earn money paid to those who fought for Irish lords.

In one case, a regiment of Highland fighters came as a kind of wedding present. That was in 1569 when the Scottish Lady Agnes Campbell, daughter of the Earl of Argyll, married the Irish nobleman and chief Turlough Luineach O’Neill. She brought 1,200 Scottish mercenaries to the marriage. Unsurprisingly, the English were none too happy about the continual influx of Highland warriors arriving in Ireland. From the late 16th century, the English authorities began to pay off Highland clan chieftains. The payments—bribes might be the correct word—were made on the condition that the chiefs kept their men at home.^[9]

1 Alexander Leslie of Auchintoul

Alexander Leslie of Auchintoul was born into a landowning Scots family in 1590—Auchintoul is in the northeast of Scotland. Leslie started out fighting for the Poles in 1618 when he was captured by the Russians. They released him, and by 1629, he was employed by the Swedes. The Swedish king, Gustav II Adolf, sent him to Moscow, and Leslie tarried there in the service of the Tsar.

The Smolensk War, a conflict between Poland and Russia, broke out in 1632, and Leslie brought regiments of mercenaries from European countries, including England and Scotland, to fight for the Tsar. Returning to Scotland in 1637, Leslie embroiled himself in the Civil War of the time, on the wrong side. Captured in battle in the Scottish Borders, he narrowly escaped execution, the fate of many of his comrades. However, he was banished and never allowed to return to Scotland. Leslie returned to Russia, where he achieved the rank of general, the first Scot to do so. His achievements included seizing Smolensk from Polish control in 1654.^[10]