Every year, surprising discoveries are made all over our planet, in our solar system, and even farther out in the deep void of space. These findings push forward our understanding of the reality we live in, often challenging previous notions of universal physical laws.

When a discovery falls outside the boundaries of our understanding—sometimes with a lack of context—it will often stump the smartest experts. Here are 10 mysteries that are baffling modern scientists.

10 Giraffe Skin Disease

Since the 1990s, baffling cases of skin disease have affected giraffes in captivity and in the wild. It is a widespread condition in sub-Saharan Africa.

Experts are unable to determine if this mysterious ailment is due to a combination of diseases or if an environmental effect is in play. The scientific community still doesn’t know how this disease spreads, if it can be transmitted to other animal species, or if there is a cure.

Currently, Fred Bercovitch, director of Save The Giraffes, advises that this skin disease should not play a larger role in giraffe conservation efforts due to a lack of information as to how the condition affects the animals’ reproduction and mobility. A better understanding of the effect of this disease on the giraffe population could greatly increase conservation efforts in the future.^[1]

9 East-Shifting Tornado Alley

Areas east of the Mississippi River have seen an increase in tornadic activity over the last few decades. Meanwhile, states in the area commonly known as Tornado Alley have seen a significant decrease.

Although states like Oklahoma, Colorado, and Texas still have the most tornadoes each year, the total number has decreased since the late 1970s. The greatest decline has occurred in central and eastern Texas.

This change in atmospheric activity has led scientists to believe that Tornado Alley is shifting east, and they do not know why. Areas where tornadoes would often go unreported before the digital age are surprisingly the same regions seeing the largest decline in tornado activity.^[2]

Victor Gensini of Northern Illinois University believes that the shift in Tornado Alley can be attributed to the drying of the Great Plains. Tornadoes form along the dry line where the dry air from the West meets the moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, a mixture that causes violent thunderstorms. As the dry line shifts east, so do the tornadoes.

However, it is unknown whether the shift is caused by our impact on the environment or an influence of nature.

8 Mysterious Seismic Waves

Seismic waves were picked up worldwide by monitoring stations on November 11, 2018, causing scientists to speculate as to what caused this never-before-witnessed event. They were able to trace the initial location to Mayotte, a French island located between continental Africa and Madagascar.

This region has been plagued by earthquakes over the last year with a decrease leading up to the event. However, no earthquakes were reported to have occurred on November 11, especially nothing capable of producing the seismic signal. The strange signal was described as better representing a burst in energy than an earthquake.

Lasting roughly 20 minutes, the seismic waves traveled thousands of kilometers across the globe. They tripped earthquake monitors, although oddly enough, nobody aboveground was able to feel them.

As the signal was so unusual, its origin is difficult to determine. John Ristau, a seismologist at GeoNet, compared the Mayotte signal with that of the 6.3-magnitude North Atlantic earthquake. Although both signals were visible, they were very different in appearance.

As Ristau explained, “You can see that the amplitude of the [Mayotte] signal varies over time; however, the frequency, or period, of the signal is virtually uniform for the entire time. This implies a source that is producing a signal at one consistent frequency, but the strength varies.”^[3]

Typically, an earthquake has a broad range of frequencies and periods at which it’s producing energy.

Anthony Lomax, an independent seismologist, suggested that the activity was probably caused by an undersea volcano to the north of Mayotte. Another possibility is an unacknowledged slow earthquake that kicked off the event.

7 The Antarctic Particles That Shatter Physics

Physicists have observed a high-energy particle blast toward space from the ice in Antarctica, and they have no idea why or how this event happened. They believe that it must be some sort of cosmic ray.

The collection of particles that comprise the Standard Model of particle physics should not be able to travel this way. But this is exactly what was observed by NASA’s Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna (ANITA) in March 2016.

It is known that low-energy particles can travel miles through the Earth without being affected. But high-energy particles act differently because their large cross-sections make it likely that these particles will collide with something once they enter the Earth. As a result, they don’t make it out.

Most scientists suggest that ANITA captured a whole new type of particle. Some theories include an atypical distribution of dark matter inside Earth or a type of sterile neutrino which rarely collides with matter.

According to Penn State researchers who combined data from ANITA and IceCube, another Antarctica-based neutrino observatory, the particles bursting from the ice toward space have less than a 1-in-3.5-million chance of being a part of the Standard Model of particle physics.^[4]

6 Persistent Noctilucent Clouds

The mesosphere, the part of the atmosphere that almost touches space, is very cold and dry. During the summer, ice crystals about the size of cigarette smoke particles form around dust, possibly from meteoroids, in the -125 decree Celsius (-193 °F) conditions. When this happens, it creates a blue illuminating display of wispy clouds shortly after sunset called noctilucent clouds.

These fascinating clouds were first witnessed roughly two years after the eruption of Krakatoa in the 1880s. However, in 2006, scientists were able to answer the questions about their nature and formation.

Recently, a new mystery has sprung up about the persistence of the noctilucent clouds during the 2018 summer season. They are observed every year and have followed an expected routine—beginning their formation in May, intensifying in June, and dissipating by late July. It came as a shock to sky watchers across the northern hemisphere to see these spectacular night lights intensify in July and stick around long into August.

By using data from NASA’s satellite-based Microwave Limb Sounder, researchers from the University of Colorado realized that an increase in moisture is the cause of the prolonged effects of the noctilucent clouds. We do not know why there is an increase in moisture.

However, some theories are already in place. One involves an early entry into the solar minimum (originally expected in 2020), which may be associated with the coldest and wettest years in the mesosphere. Another possible explanation is planetary wave action in the southern hemisphere which causes more moisture in the northern atmosphere than one would usually expect.^[5]

5 The Puzzling Hexagonal Vortex Of Saturn

Analyzing data from the Cassini-Huygens mission that reached Saturn in 2004 and ended in 2017, researchers observed a strange hexagonal vortex forming at Saturn’s north pole as the northern hemisphere entered summertime. This vortex towered hundreds of kilometers above the clouds in the stratosphere.

In the 1980s, NASA’s Voyager spacecraft had discovered a hexagonal vortex much lower in the planet’s atmosphere, but they were astonished by the Cassini-Huygens finding. Leigh Fletcher of the University of Leicester explained:

While we did expect to see a vortex of some kind at Saturn’s north pole as it grew warmer, its shape is really surprising. Either a hexagon has spawned spontaneously and identically at two different altitudes, one lower in the clouds and one high in the stratosphere, or the hexagon is in fact a towering structure spanning a vertical range of several hundred kilometers.

A process called evanescence is one way for wave information to push up into the stratosphere, although its strength decays with height. According to our understanding of atmospheric sciences, however, a hexagonal vortex should not be able to push past the lower altitude clouds as wind directions change with higher altitudes.

Cracking the case on this geometric mystery will help scientists understand the transportation of energy around planets by grasping how the higher atmosphere is affected by the lower-altitude environment.

The Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) used on the Cassini-Huygens mission also revealed that Saturn’s poles exhibit surprisingly different behaviors. The south pole displays a vastly more mature circular vortex during the southern summer. This could indicate that Saturn’s northern vortex will continue to mature. Alternatively, Saturn may have asymmetrical poles that are yet to be understood.^[6]

4 The Missing Dark Matter

A team of scientists led by Pieter van Dokkum has discovered a galaxy named NGC1052-DF2 that appears to be lacking dark matter. This has astronomers scratching their heads because the absence of dark matter in this galaxy would confirm that the substance exists as well as produce doubts about our current understanding as to how a galaxy is created.

Our modern understanding is that galaxies are created from a halo of dark matter. Without dark matter, a galaxy should not be able to form.

The team was able to get a closer look and determine the mass of NGC1052-DF2, located 65 million light-years away, by tracking 10 embedded star clusters with the Dragonfly Telephoto Array. They found that the mass of NGC1052-DF2 was almost equal to the total mass expected from the stars (visible matter) within it. Also, the mass of NGC1052-DF2 is only 0.5 percent of the mass of our Milky Way galaxy.^[7]

Some have suggested that dark matter may not exist and that we need to modify our understanding of gravity. However, alternate theories of gravity still have something that mimics dark matter on a galactic scale. In fact, it should always be there.

So, van Dokkum argues that if an alternate law of gravity applies to one galaxy, then that law should affect all galaxies in the same way. As a result, every galaxy should look like it has dark matter (even if it doesn’t) because the mimicking factor would always be there.

That leads us to van Dokkum’s paradoxical conclusion. If all galaxies should look like they have dark matter (even if it’s really something else), then the inability to detect dark matter in galaxy NGC1052-DF2 proves that dark matter is real. Scientists are still debating this issue vigorously.

3 The Deep Space Flashing Light

When astronomers were searching the depths of space to determine what comprises the 80 percent of the universe we can’t see, they stumbled across something unexpected. Seventy-two intense bursts of light were monitored from the Cerro Tololo International Observatory in Chile by Miika Pursiainen and his team.

The hot bursts of light were measured as being 300 million kilometers (186 million mi) to 15 billion kilometers (9 billion mi) across. They also had brightness that one would expect from a supernova, although they did not have the duration.

According to one theory, this event occurred due to a complication in the development of a Type II supernova. A Type II supernova happens when a star blows off its outer shell of gas after a buildup of heavy elements in the star’s core causes it to collapse in on itself.

This complication is currently being researched by the Australian National University. It has been named a fast-evolving luminous transient (FELT), which occurs when a star develops gas bubbles during the early stages of the collapse. When the star goes supernova, these gas bubbles explode due to the superheating effect. This is still a working theory, and only time will give us any definitive answers.^[8]

2 Strange Infrared Light Emitting From A Pulsar

RX J0806.4-4123 is one of “The Magnificent Seven,” a group of X-ray pulsars located within 3,300 light-years from Earth. These pulsars are hotter and slower than astronomers would expect for their age.

RX J0806.4-4123 is emitting a strange infrared light that is completely new to scientists. When an international group of astronomers observed the pulsar with the Hubble Space Telescope, they noticed the extended area of roughly 29 billion kilometers (18 billion mi) of infrared light emitting from the pulsar.

Obviously, something more is going on with this neutron star as the infrared emissions are greater than the star alone can produce. So, what is the source of the energy? Scientists have proposed at least two theories: a fallback disk or a pulsar wind nebula.^[9]

A fallback disk is a large disk of dust that formed around the neutron star after its explosion. Although such a disk has never been observed, researchers have hypothesized its existence.

It would explain the higher temperature and slower rotation of the star as well as the amount of energy needed to emit so much infrared light. A confirmation of the fallback disk would be a huge leap forward in our understanding of the formation of neutron stars.

Now let’s examine the pulsar wind nebula theory. The fast rotation of a neutron star with a strong magnetic field creates an electric field. In turn, when particles are accelerated in this field, a pulsar wind may be produced. Infrared emissions would then be emitted by shocked particles created when the neutron star travels at faster than the speed of sound through the interstellar medium.

However, the existence of an infrared-only pulsar wind nebula would be extraordinary.

1 The Bird In The Child’s Mouth

Fifty years ago, the remains of a young child were found in Tunel Wielki Cave in the Saspowska Valley in Poland. The child’s gender is unknown, but the skull of a bird was in the youngster’s mouth and another was by the child’s cheek.

Although the discovery was peculiar, the bones were almost immediately boxed and put into storage without being properly examined and assessed. The findings went unpublished except for a single photograph in a 1980s book by Professor Waldemar Chmielewski, the man who originally discovered the skeleton.

Anthropologists don’t know why the child was buried about 200 years ago in this manner or location. The only other human remains found in the cave were at least 4,000 years old.

The mystery doesn’t stop there. Although the University of Warsaw has bones from the youngster’s body, it does not have the child’s skull. In fact, it is missing. It was sent to anthropologists in Wroclaw after the excavation, but no one seems to know where the skull is now.^[10]

We’ve all been there. Sitting in a dark cinema, chomping down on popcorn, holding our breath, waiting to see who the giant shark is going to attack next…

Da dum, da dum, da dum …

But how realistic are these portrayals of shark attacks really? How much of what we see is fact and how much is fiction? On this list are 10 movies with shark attack scenes reviewed by shark scientists:

Melissa Cristina Marquez – marine biologist, shark scientist, science communicator, tv presenter and author. She received her BS in Marine Ecology and Conservation from New College of Florida, where her senior thesis focused on Sex Specific Differences in Habitat use and Migratory behavior shown in great white sharks in South Africa. She then went on to receive her MA in Marine Biology and PHD in Environment and Agriculture.

Apryl Boyle – speaker and educator on shark advocacy and marine/environmental sciences. As a trusted marine and shark researcher, she is regularly called upon to give press interviews. With Masters in Epidemiology, Biostatistics, Pharmacology and Biochemistry, she is one smart lady!

10 Facts That Will Change How You View Sharks

10 Jaws (1975)

“I looooove the iconic Jaws music. The build-up of the music amazing. You’re just sitting there waiting, when’s it going to happen, when’s it going to happen …. Aaaawww, there’s the big boy!” enthuses Marquez.

The first thing she points out in the shark attack scene above is Bruce’s perfect counter camouflage, referring to the coloring of Great White sharks: darker on top and lighter on the bottom. Looking at a shark from above, the darker color blends in with the dark water, while looking at the shark from below looks like sunlight trickling down. This camouflage is perfect for the shark’s stealth approach when it comes to hunting.

While sharks sometimes do ram cages, especially if the bait is pulled too close to the cage, Marquez insists they hardly do it intentionally. Sharks cannot swim backwards so once they are in motion and confronted by a cage, they often don’t have any other option. While she is not all that impressed by the animatronics used to create Bruce, Marquez does agree that the cage is spot on. Even now in 2020, the structure of these cages has not changed much.

Interestingly, Peter Benchley apparently regrets writing Jaws and spent many years working in shark conservation to right the wrong.

9 Baywatch (1989)

“They definitely had a lot of fun filming this! The entire thing is a homage to Jaws,” comments Boyle.
“I can’t imagine a life guard getting into the water when the boat is right there and can get to them so much faster,” she continues.

First responders are trained not to endanger themselves in the process of saving someone else. It’s hard to imagine any situation where the life guard would jump into the water and try to drag someone away from a shark, rather than getting into the boat and safely steering away from it.
“This movie is a giant love letter to Jaws. Over-the-top absurd, probably a really fun shoot to do,” she concludes.

8 Deep Blue Sea (1999)

“If anything is going to be unrealistic about this movie, it’s going to be the scientific results coming out that quickly,” says Marquez.

But while they may not be as fancy, high-tech and under water as depicted in the movie, there are quite a few shark labs around the world. They are mostly used for medical research (blood, hemoglobin and skin tissues are harvested to study the shark’s immune system for example) and bio inspiration (using what scientists find in nature in other parts of life such as wet suits and plane wings). But as this list is about shark attacks, let’s get back to the blood and guts.

In the clip above, one of the scientists loses his arm when the shark jumps up at him from within the tank. Although appreciative of the realistic-looking shark prop used to film the movie, Marquez points out the that the shark would need a lot more space to propel itself out of the water like that. In such a tight enclosure, it’s very unlikely that it would be able to build up enough thrust.

7 Lara Croft: Tomb Raider – The Cradle of Life (2003)

“You probably have a better chance of contracting an infection than you have of attracting a shark,” remarks Marquez, referring to Lara cutting herself in order to lure a shark with the scent of her blood in the water.

Also, sharks don’t make noises. Except for Dog Sharks that make a barking sound when taken out of the water. “That sounded more cat-like than shark-like,” Marquez laughs.

Punching the shark could actually be a great way to deter them, but if you’ve ever tried punching something or someone under water, you will know from experience that being under water causes some drag. It probably also isn’t that wise to punch it on the nose either. It just increases your chances of ending up with your arm down its throat. Should you ever need to punch a shark, Marquez suggests aiming for an eye, or even better, the gills. Much like sucker punching someone in the lungs, this will take the shark’s breath away and encourage it to leave you alone.

“Just as well she’s wearing gloves,” Marquez wraps up. Sharkskin is very similar to sand paper and rubbing up against it would definitely leave Lara suffering from shark burn.

6 Finding Nemo (2003)

“Fish are friends, not food… I can’t tell you how many kids have said that to me,” says Boyle.

By showing a slightly softer, more “humanized” version of sharks, Boyle believes that Finding Nemo has given many kids a less scary introduction to these predators. She feels that this has gone a long way toward encouraging modern day conservational efforts.

And sharks do indeed have fish friends. Specifically, Pilot and Remora fish have very symbiotic relationships with sharks. But as far as the trickle of blood sending Bruce (another nod to Jaws, perhaps?) into a feeding frenzy, Boyle once again points out that this simply is not realistic. While it’s true that sharks can indeed pick up a few drops of blood in an Olympic-size swimming pool, most sharks are picky eaters. “Imagine how easy my research would be if this were true!” she concludes.

Top 10 Incredible Sharks

5 Open Water (2003)

“I am literally getting chills.”

According to Boyle, Open Water is the scariest shark movie out there. It is based on the true story of two divers getting left behind on a dive and speculates on what they must have gone through as they were never found. “Being left behind is literally the worst thing that could happen to any diver. That is the most frightening part of this movie,” Boyle says.

The second scariest, she continues, is the fact that the little shark bite is actually very realistic and highly feasible. Boyle herself has witnessed sharks taking a nibble of something and, realizing that it’s not their food, swimming away.

“This is totally realistic and very, very frightening.”

4 Couples Retreat (2009)

“Why are people always surprised that there are sharks in the ocean? … You’re throwing dead animals into the ocean. What did you think was going to happen?” muses Marquez.

Chumming, the use of fish blood and guts to attract sharks, is often employed by scientists in order to study these mysterious creatures. It should never be used for recreational purposes though, because, guess what, you’re probably going to get bitten by a shark.

While Marquez questions Marcel’s identification of the sharks as Lemon Sharks, she does agree with his advice. Keep calm. Don’t panic. Slowly swim away from the chum.

3 The Shallows (2016)

“The shark depicted in this movie is supposed to be a Great White shark. They are very picky eaters. I have witnessed myself some of them taking a bite of something and spitting it out,” remarks Boyle. “And so, the notion that it would fight so hard for a morsel that is not their usual calorie-dense food, is rather far-fetched.”

For sharks in the wild, survival is all about eating calorie-dense food such as seals and sea lions. These animals, unlike humans, have blubber that is far more calorie-dense than human fat. The energy expended in this scene by the shark jumping out of the water, out on the rocks and hurting itself, is just not worth the pay-off it would get from eating poor, slender Blake.

2 The Meg (2018)

“Megalodon is a very, very, very extinct shark …” laughs Marquez.

This giant shark that a lot of people have likened to a Great White, has not been in our oceans for many years. Understandably, though, there is still a giant fascination with this creature. “I promise you though, there is no shark big enough to get such a massive anchor stuck to itself and pull such a big boat with that many people,” Marquez says.

Referring to the utter chaos and panic that ensues in the beach attack scene above, Marquez shares some safety tips should you ever find yourself in shark-infested waters:

1. Always swim with a buddy who can help keep an eye out for sharks.
2. Also make sure you don’t draw more attention to yourself by splashing in the water like a wounded animal.
3. And remember, it’s not the shark you see that’s the problem. It’s the one you don’t see!

The biggest shark recorded in modern history is the whale shark. They tend to grow to a length of about 40 feet, or 12 meters. But even these bad boys are unlikely to approach that many people. Most shark species are quite shy and tend to conserve their energy for prey with more blubber.

1 47 Meters Down: Uncaged (2019)

“While there are some freshwater shark species, they definitely don’t look like this,” says Marquez, referring to the cut and paste, Frankenstein-zombie-looking creature in the clip above. It doesn’t look like any shark species she knows. It also seems to be blind which she has not encountered often. At least it has 5 gill slits which, according to Marquez, is anatomically correct.

Even though it may seem unrealistic that there would be so many sharks in a cave, who knows? A couple of years ago a shark was discovered in an erupted volcano so it could be possible. In the movie the sharks are shown circling the trapped divers in the cave, just like sharks in real life would do. They do this to check out potential prey, sizing it up and deciding whether it’s a meal or not. But as these sharks are blind, what the heck are they doing?

Top 10 Fascinating Facts And Stories About Sharks

In the lead-up to World War II, it was well understood that the Third Reich was the most formidable force of science and technology that the world had ever seen. Blending occult lore and magic with cutting-edge engineering and physics, Adolf Hitler sought to master matter and spirit in much the same way as he sought to master the nations of the world.

So formidable did Hitler’s scientific might seem that many American business interests desired to ally with Nazi Germany rather than resist this growing global superpower. Chagrined with President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s socialist New Deal, prominent American businessmen even attempted to enlist the aid of decorated war hero Major General Smedley Butler in their plot to replace Roosevelt’s administration with a fascist American government.

As Nazi Germany grew in territory and influence, Hitler became increasingly envious of American manufacturing power. He dreamed of an unstoppable union of German occult science and American brute force that would solidify the Third Reich’s stranglehold over the planet’s future. Though history remembers Hitler as having lost World War II, his unholy fantasy was destined to come to fruition.

Unfazed by the war crimes perpetrated by the Third Reich during the war, leaders of the American military and industrial sectors imported dozens of top Nazi scientists to work in America after the victory of the Allies in World War II. Called Operation Paperclip, this secret initiative led to numerous medical and engineering breakthroughs, including the development of the Saturn V rocket and the founding of NASA.

In many ways, the Operation Paperclip scientists were directly responsible for the unquestioned military and economic supremacy enjoyed by America in the postwar years, yet their Nazi past was generally overlooked or whitewashed by the American media. In the following list, we’ll tell the stories of 10 Nazi scientists who survived the war and flourished as American assets.

10 Walter Schieber

Walter Schieber was a critical player in the Third Reich’s wartime production. His prewar experience in textile manufacturing made him immensely useful to the National Socialist Party, and in 1943, Hitler awarded him with the War Merit Cross.

After the war, Schieber caught the eye of Charles Loucks, a brigadier general with the US Army Chemical Corps. Loucks was assigned to the German town of Heidelberg to work on the development of nerve agents like tabun and sarin gas. Rather than being repelled by Schieber’s past, Loucks was drawn to this Nazi war criminal for his close connections with Heinrich Himmler and his intimate knowledge of the gases used by the Third Reich during the war.^[1]

Schieber worked for the Chemical Corps for 10 years and later became an asset of the CIA. Since he was useful to the American government, Schieber was never prosecuted for his war crimes. In fact, he played a pivotal role in the development of the sarin gas that has subsequently been used by the US military.

9 Hubertus Strughold

Known as the “Father of Space Medicine,” Hubertus Strughold helped the United States Air Force and NASA develop many of the principles of medical care in space that are still in practice today. For years, the Aerospace Medical Association (AsMA) gave an annual award named after Strughold to prominent contributors in the field of space medicine. But when his suspicious connections to Nazi war criminals came to light, AsMA struck Strughold’s name from the award.^[2]

Throughout his long career as a respected scientist in the United States, Strughold fervently denied any knowledge of the war crimes committed by the Nazis. However, he was implicated during the Nuremberg trials as having involvement with the atrocities committed at Dachau, and he spoke in detail at a Nazi conference in 1942 about the infamous “cold” experiments.

Beloved by his colleagues and students, many found it hard to believe that Strughold had lied about his involvement in Nazi human experimentation. But the evidence suggests that Strughold’s expertise in keeping people alive in space was derived at least in part from his intimate knowledge of just how much the human body can endure under extreme stress.

8 Dr. Kurt Blome

Ostensibly, Dr. Kurt Blome was Hitler’s head of cancer research. But in reality, he was in charge of the development of Nazi biological warfare capabilities.

Blome stood trial at Nuremberg for performing euthanasia and conducting human experimentation, but he was acquitted due to the intervention of the American military. The United States government wanted to expand on Blome’s intimate knowledge of human biological weaknesses to create even deadlier nerve agents.^[3]

Blome’s US Army Chemical Corps personnel file makes no mention of his involvement in human experimentation. He lived out the rest of his life in West Germany working on secret projects for the American government and remained active in the right-wing Germany Party until his death in 1969.

7 Arthur Rudolph

When Arthur Rudolph was brought into the United States in 1947 as part of Operation Paperclip, he was noted to be an “ardent Nazi,” but all mention of his war crimes was omitted from official reports. However, documents from two years later confirm that Rudolph had been designated as a war criminal by Allied officials.

In 1961, Arthur Rudolph joined fellow Nazi Wernher von Braun at NASA to design the Saturn V rocket. Without Rudolph’s rocketry genius, the Apollo project would never have come to be.

Though the American government was undoubtedly grateful for his service, the Justice Department charged Rudolph in 1984 with working thousands of slaves to death while overseeing the development of the V-2 rocket during World War II. Rather than face charges, Rudolph agreed to turn in his American citizenry and leave the country.^[4]

When it comes to American aerospace programs in the postwar era, it seems like asking for a history without Nazi influence is a bridge too far. We must simply content ourselves with our gratitude that NASA elected to avoid using slave labor as an expediency when paving the way to the 1969 Moon landing.

6 Magnus von Braun

Though admittedly less famous than his brother Wernher, Magnus von Braun certainly enjoyed a degree of infamy among members of the American military. They labeled him as a “dangerous German Nazi” who posed a greater threat to national security than “half a dozen discredited SS generals.” Serving as his brother’s personal assistant, Magnus negotiated the surrender of the German assembled rocket team in 1945.

After proving himself just as capable as his brother when it came to engineering, Magnus was welcomed by the US Army personnel at Fort Bliss, Texas, with a mixture of pragmatic enthusiasm and wary skepticism. Their qualms about the younger von Braun were quickly proven to be justified when Magnus was caught attempting to sell a brick of platinum that he’d stolen from the base to a jeweler in El Paso.

The incident was hushed up to avoid garnering any negative press directed at Operation Paperclip. Wernher von Braun meted out justice for the infraction personally by inflicting a brutal beating on his brother. His reputation seemingly untarnished by the incident, Magnus went on to enjoy a long and prosperous career with Chrysler before retiring to the Arizona desert.^[5]

5 Dieter Grau

As a member of the von Braun rocket group, Dieter Grau was an integral player in the development of the V-2 rocket during World War II. After the war, Grau was sent to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip. He served as quality director on a number of rocket projects spearheaded by Wernher von Braun on behalf of the US government, including the development of the Saturn V rocket.

Before his work for the US Army and NASA, Dieter Grau performed quality control of a somewhat different kind. During his time as a Nazi asset in Germany, Grau was briefly posted in Mittelwerk, the underground slave labor rocket factory run by Arthur Rudolph.

At Mittelwerk, Grau employed his expertise in “debugging,” or the detection of worker sabotage. The slaves that he outed at Mittelwerk were subjected to a special punishment reserved for saboteurs: public hanging in the factory’s main hall by a crane that was raised slowly to extend the anguish.^[6]

Grau lived to be 101 and was fondly remembered by his American colleagues for his attention to detail in everything that he did.

4 Walter Dornberger

Unlike other Operation Paperclip Nazi assets who got away with their war crimes scot-free, Walter Dornberger saw prison time for the use of slave labor in the production of V-2 rockets. But Dornberger, who had reached the rank of lieutenant general under Hitler’s regime, only spent two years behind bars before he was released by the American military.

He was subsequently taken to the United States to rejoin his fellow Nazi rocket scientists, and SS General Dornberger was soon elevated to the post of vice president of the Bell Aircraft Corporation.

During his career as a Nazi general, Dornberger had fired over 1,000 V-2 rockets on residential areas of London. Dornberger was also there the day that the first V-2 rocket was launched in 1937, on which occasion he asked fellow Nazi rocket scientist Wernher von Braun if he recognized the momentousness of the event that had just transpired. Von Braun responded, “Yes, today the spaceship was born.”

Dornberger believed that it was the Third Reich’s obsession with space travel that led to Hitler’s defeat. Yet when it came time to build space exploration vehicles for his new American benefactors, Dornberger was more than happy to oblige. General Dornberger lived out the rest of his life seemingly unhaunted by his past. He died in his homeland of Germany at age 84.^[7]

3 Hermann Oberth

It was Hermann Oberth’s pioneering work in rocket design that originally inspired Wernher von Braun to apply himself to the study of rocketry. When Oberth first posited the idea that rockets could operate in the vacuum of space, he was ridiculed.

But when he developed the German V-2 rocket alongside von Braun, his theories took an important step toward validation. And when Oberth rejoined von Braun in America to develop the Saturn V rocket, his dreams finally took flight.^[8]

While Oberth’s contributions to rocket science are undeniable, other aspects of his legacy are more open to interpretation. Potentially apocryphal quotes attributed to Oberth seem to indicate that this Nazi scientist was under the impression that human spaceflight capabilities weren’t developed by human beings alone. When asked who had assisted humanity in our quest to reach for the stars, Oberth supposedly replied, “The people of other worlds!”

Regardless of whether this quote is accurate, Oberth is on record as a firm believer that UFOs are spaceships from another solar system. Was this belief just a random supposition, or was this acclaimed Nazi aerospace scientist privy to evidence of extraterrestrial life kept outside the public sphere of knowledge?

2 Kurt Debus

Next to Wernher von Braun, Kurt Debus is the most famous former Nazi to grace the ranks of American rocketry’s hall of fame. Debus was the director of the John F. Kennedy Space Center in Florida from 1962 to 1974.

But in another life, he was Hitler’s flight test director during the development of the V-2 rocket. Despite what we know about the horrors of the V-2 development program, Debus was never held accountable for his past and he still enjoys a glowing posthumous reputation.

Debus was part of the group led by Magnus von Braun that negotiated the surrender of the German rocket scientists at the end of the war. Almost immediately, Debus was whisked away to begin work at Fort Bliss. He was soon transferred to Huntsville, Alabama, to oversee the construction of the NASA facilities at Cape Canaveral.^[9]

With Debus at the helm, NASA successfully launched 13 Saturn V rockets into space, including the rocket that carried the Apollo 11 astronauts to the Moon. Yet Debus would never have been able to make these great American achievements possible had it not been for his involvement in forcing slaves to build rockets of war for the Nazi empire.

1 Wernher von Braun

Wernher von Braun was quickly recognized by Nazi authorities as being a physics and engineering genius. But von Braun was anything but bookish in nature.

His potent charisma and visionary prowess made him the perfect candidate for organizing large-scale production operations, such as the development of the V-2 rocket. At age 25, von Braun was in charge of a team of 400 people. By the time he was 30, his team had swelled to 5,000 strong.^[10]

During the war, Wernher von Braun visited the slave factory at Mittelwerk at least a dozen times. On one occasion, he toured the abysmal sleeping quarters for the forced laborers. Yet, during his tenure in the American space program, he did his best to distance himself from the atrocities committed by the Nazis by putting forth the position that there was nothing that he could have done to help.

Fully aware that hundreds of slaves were dying to bring his dreams to life, von Braun still feverishly dedicated himself day and night to the development of the V-2 rocket. Without von Braun, it’s doubtful that the Saturn V rocket would have ever seen the light of day. But because of von Braun, endless ranks of forced laborers toiled and died in the darkness.

At what awful price did America buy her incontestable supremacy in space?

China is a powerhouse that thrives on progress. One multipurpose field seeing great strides from this country is genetics. In recent years, China’s studies have included many world firsts and incredible medical advances.

There exists a strange side, too. Scientists are creating things never seen in nature, rewriting the rules on reproduction, and keeping the rest of the world nervous with their penchant for controversial human editing.

10 Biggest Genetic Study

In 2018, a genome sequencing company based in Shenzhen was given access to a massive database. The genetic information of around seven million pregnant Chinese women was gathered while testing for a disorder linked to Down syndrome.

Only about 141,000 women were chosen, but it remains the biggest project examining Chinese genetics. The mothers represented nearly all provinces and even 36 of the 55 ethnic minority groups.

The findings were interesting. Certain genes were linked to height and body mass, the ability to have twins, and how severely herpesvirus 6 manifests. Even migrations left their mark on the Chinese genome. The largest wedge of the population is made up of the Han (92 percent).^[1]

The study found that this group had the same genetic structure, but differences hinged on where they lived. Their northern and southern origins reflected in migrations known to have happened after 1949, when work became more available to the east and west. Gene variations also cause different immune responses from northern and southern Han. Intriguingly, certain minority groups had more genetic diversity than the Han.

9 Unknown Giant Panda

The giant panda is iconic to China. Although these creatures are the subject of considerable studies, researchers still know very little about how they evolved. The only sure fact is that giant pandas split from other bears 20 million years ago.

Then, in 2018, a fossil turned up in Cizhutuo Cave in China. The creature died 22,000 years ago and looked a lot like a giant panda. To gauge what exactly it was, researchers accomplished an amazing feat—they pieced together 148,329 fragments of its DNA.

When the ancestry became clear, two things made the fossil unique. The DNA was the oldest ever found from a giant panda, but it also revealed a lineage nobody even knew existed. This panda split from its living cousins about 183,000 years ago. Its genetic code also revealed a great number of mutations that probably helped this species to survive the Ice Age in which it lived.^[2]

8 Dogs With More Muscle

In 2015, the Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health saw the birth of several puppies. These were no ordinary beagles. They started their existence as 60 genetically modified embryos from which a single gene was removed.

Myostatin blocks muscle growth. Scientists deleted it to create what they claim are the world’s first designer dogs. Only 27 puppies were born, but not everything went according to plan.

Myostatin has two copies, and both were gone from only a single female pup. Another male puppy had one copy deactivated. He was more bulky than the rest but not as much as the female, which was designed to develop twice the normal amount of muscle. The project’s aim was to produce test animals on which to study diseases affecting human muscles, including Parkinson’s and muscular dystrophy.^[3]

The Chinese may have many firsts to their credit, but in this case, nature beat them. Belgian Blue cattle have jaw-dropping muscles, thanks to a natural lack of myostatin. In addition, a genetic disorder occasionally deletes the gene in whippets, producing freakishly muscled dogs.

7 Spider Silkworms

Upon learning that scientists tweaked the silkworm’s ability to produce silk, most would think of worms spinning better, more copious amounts. However, in the world of this satiny material, the silkworm is not king. Spiders beat them on several levels.

Arachnid silk promises incredibly useful applications in medicine, including microcapsules that deliver cancer drugs as well as the potential to fix damaged nerves. Researchers also discovered that it could strengthen bulletproof vests.

Unfortunately, spiders do not play along with idea of having their silk commercially farmed. Unlike the predictable silkworm, the arachnids are territorial and, worse yet, cannibalistic.

In 2018, a team affiliated with several Chinese institutions used gene editing and succeeded where many others have failed. They replaced a segment from the silkworm’s genetic code with DNA from a golden orb-web spider.^[4]

When the altered worms spun their cocoons, the silk was analyzed. It was 35.2 percent spider, the highest purity ever achieved. (Past attempts lagged at 5 percent.) The silk was ready to use the moment the silkworms released the threads, something no other team could manage.

6 First Blue Rose

Among the most sought-after things in the world of gardeners is the blue rose. It does not exist in nature, and for hundreds of years, rose enthusiasts failed to breed this ultimate color.

During a more recent project that lasted 20 years and involved selective breeding and genetic engineering, biotechnologists came the nearest. However, even this prize rose was more mauve than blue.

Chinese scientists found a novel way to reach the dream. They started with the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, often used in bioengineering because it easily transfers foreign genetic material into plant DNA.^[5]

From another bacterium, the researchers picked two bacterial enzymes capable of turning the L-glutamine in rose petals into a blue pigment called indigoidine. A special strain of A. tumefaciens was created to carry the enzymes.

The bacteria were then injected into a white rose. The pigment genes entered the plant’s genome and caused blue to pool around the injection spot. The world’s first blue rose is not perfect as the technique only produces temporary blotches. However, Chinese scientists are already busy with the next step—engineering a rose that naturally produces the two enzymes and causes itself to turn blue.

5 The SARS Cave

In 2002, the world followed the lethal outbreak of SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome). It first bloomed in South China, infected 8,000 people, and killed nearly 800.

What caused the epidemic was never solved. In late 2017, scientists disclosed an unnerving clue in a cave in China’s Yunnan Province. For the past five years, they had investigated multiple SARS viruses present in the cave’s bats. There were 11 new strains, but none showed the genetic traits of the 2002 outbreak. SARS in bats has never been proven to cross the species barrier to humans, either.

However, a thorough analysis found something frightening. Together, the new strains carried enough genetic blocks to theoretically build a virus that could evolve to jump from bats to people. Secondly, three of the new strains showed a genetic predisposition to infect humans.^[6]

If the 2002 epidemic rose from the cave, it still does not explain how it traveled to Ground Zero in Guangdong Province 1,000 kilometers (621 mi) away.

4 China’s First Monkey Clones

In late 2017, two long-tailed macaques were born in the same Shanghai laboratory. Even though their births happened weeks apart, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua were identical “twins.”

They were created with the somatic cell nuclear transfer technique (SCNT), the same one that produced the historical sheep clone, Dolly, 20 years ago. The monkeys may be the first nonhuman primates created with SCNT, but the feat was not applauded by the entire international community.

Critics fear that the project might bring human cloning closer to reality without giving much regard to serious ethical concerns. Some researchers are entirely against SCNT, calling it “a very inefficient and hazardous procedure.”^[7]

Indeed, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua only happened after 79 previous failed attempts. Despite the criticism, Chinese scientists insist that identical monkeys can be a valuable way to study gene-based diseases in humans, including certain cancers.

3 HIV-Resistant Embryos

Gene editing in humans is the new frontier. While most governments stall to agree on protocols for ethically modifying human tissue, China went ahead and did it a few years ago.

The historic breakthrough just added more fuel to the debate. Perhaps to no one’s surprise, this did not stop Guangzhou Medical University from doing it again in 2016. They wanted to create HIV-resistant embryos.

Operating under strict guidelines, they used 26 fertilized human eggs. All had been donated to research because they were no longer viable and would not develop into living babies.

The next step involved a specific genetic mutation. People who naturally carry this mutation are immune to the HIV virus. Using a gene editing tool called CRISPR, the gene was inserted into the embryos’ genomes.^[8]

The tweak was successful, but only four became HIV-proof. The others showed why the rest of the world was slow to jump on the bandwagon. Unexpected mutations showed up—and not the good kind.

It would be impossible to predict the long-term effects on a CRISPR-created human (should it ever go that far). If anything, this second attempt showed that this type of gene editing was not safe. CRISPR was also used during the first modification years ago and also produced unwanted mutations.

2 Cancer-Fighting Robots

The dream of creating nanorobots capable of fighting cancer within the body is nothing new. It was in the way Chinese researchers recently managed this that bordered on the ingenious.

Tumors can only live for as long as they are fed by a person’s blood vessels. To create something to block the vessels, scientists began by borrowing DNA molecules from a virus called a phage. An origami-like technique folded the strand into a rectangular sheet. The “tumor killers” were added, which were basically molecules of the clotting enzyme thrombin.

Four were rolled up inside the sheet to form a tube-shaped nanorobot. Special proteins locked the four molecules inside. After injection, the nanorobot entered the blood vessels. There, tumors opened the proteins and released the enzyme thrombin. A clot formed in the vessels and starved the tumor.

Tests on mice showed that the robots were effective. The rodents suffered from cancers of the skin, lung, breast, and ovary. In a group of eight animals with melanoma, the tumors vanished completely in three mice. Their life expectancy also increased.^[9]

1 Mice With No Father

In 2018, Chinese scientists successfully bred two female mice. The 29 pups are the first mammals born from two mothers with no male involvement. The study tried to find out why two genders are essential for most species to reproduce. The answer rewrote the rules of reproduction.

As it turns out, during mammalian conception, there are about 100 genes where only genes from the female or male are switched on. Both genders are needed to activate all 100. The male covers the ones not switched on by female genes, and vice versa.^[10]

If two females could breed in nature, certain genes would stay dormant. Using gene editing on mouse stem cells, researchers bypassed this barrier by removing a small piece of genetic code in three places. The altered cells were injected into an egg from a second female mouse. Successful fertilization followed. The babies grew up healthy and had pups of their own.

A similar experiment with two fathers (and a surrogate mother) produced 12 pups, but they all died within 48 hours. The research offers a distant hope for same-sex human couples wanting their own families.

We are living in the age of robotics. The world today is dominated by machinery and technology. There are many who say we should fear the rise of the robots, that they are destined to steal our jobs or even use their weapons against us. But not all robots are threatening and evil. Some of them are just plain weird.

Across the world, scientists are at work developing all kinds of mind-boggling machinery and bizarre AI. In the last few years alone, roboticists have unveiled a sassy android, a shape-shifting submarine, and a device that allows fish and bees to speak to each other. From cuddle machines to worm-powered Lego, here are ten of the weirdest robots ever built.

10 Futuristic Things AI And Robots Are Already Doing

10 Irony Man, The Sassy Robot

Fans of Douglas Adams will no doubt be familiar with Marvin The Paranoid Android, the depressed if slightly conceited robot from The Hitchhiker’s Guide To The Galaxy. But, instead of a paranoid android, how about a sassy one? A robot that rolls its eyes from time to time and fires off acerbic comments.

Well, scientists from Ausburg University have created just that, after programming one of their latest robots with a sense of irony. The fittingly-named Irony Man is designed to be less formal and more relatable than a typical AI. Unlike most talking machines, which speak in flat monotonous voices, Irony Man is able to reflect real patterns of human speech. So if someone were to say that “Traffic is frustrating,” Irony Man would retort “I love being stuck here” with a sarcastic emphasis on the word “love”.

But why would anyone want to make a smart-mouthed robot? Irony Man’s creators thought that he would be easier to get along with if he was programmed to speak like a real person. And it seems as if they were right. Students who took part in a trial with Irony Man found him to be more endearing than a standard machine. However there are still concerns over his lack of tact. Irony Man can use sarcasm but is unable to judge if it is appropriate, so he sometimes comes across as a little obnoxious.^[1]

9 Skybot F-850, Russia’s Robot Astronaut

Skybot F-850 is an android astronaut, a fully-automated machine designed by the Russian space agency for life on board the International Space Station (ISS).

Engineers spent five years developing and preparing Skybot for the challenge of going into space. The six foot android is built from sturdy materials to survive the blast into zero-gravity, and is specially programmed to stop it from inadvertently damaging the space centre.

In summer 2019, the mechanized cosmonaut spent two weeks working on board the ISS as a “social companion” to the human crew. During its time in orbit, Skybot was able to converse with its fellow astronauts, answering their queries and keeping them amused with the odd joke. The android was even able to fly itself to the space station, taking command of a Soyuz spacecraft and monitoring its conditions as they entered zero-gravity.

As Alexander Bloshenko, executive director of the Russian space agency, told reporters: “Future generations of such robots will solve tasks that are potentially of special risk for humans, such as extravehicular activities and telemetry operations on solar system bodies.”^[2]

8 Lovot, The Cuddly Robot Who Helps Combat Loneliness

In our modern age, when everyone seems to be moving at a hundred miles a second, loneliness can be a major issue. For those who struggle with companionship, Japanese startup Groove X has designed Lovot – a little furry robot who comforts people in need of a friend.

Lovot is an affable machine, a pint-sized pal that quickly warms to its owner. For those in need of a good hug, its fleecy “skin” is designed to be warm and easy to cuddle, and the robot is always happy for some close personal contact. Over time, Lovot’s emotional bond is said to grow stronger as it starts to learn its owner’s face and comes to meet them when they get back home.

Whether it is healthy to try and cure loneliness with artificial friendship instead of human connection is an interesting question. But, whatever your opinion, Lovot has been selling in Japan for over a year now. And developers say that, with future investment, it might soon be on its way to the US as well.^[3]

7 Robot Translator For Fish And Bees

In 2019, scientists at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne built a machine that allows fish and bees to talk to each other. The researchers created a robot translator that can send messages back and forth between a group of zebrafish and a swarm of honeybees. To really challenge themselves, the scientists decided to conduct their experiment from different countries. The fish were at one location Switzerland. The bees were miles away in neighboring Austria.

The robot translator issued commands to each species then translated their responses into signals for the other group. So the fish might be shown a color or tail movement, which influenced the direction of their swimming. This would then be translated into a vibration or a change in temperature, which caused the bees to move to a different area. The bees’ motion would then be translated into a signal for the fish, and so and so forth. To start with the experiment was absolute bedlam, but after 25 minutes of confusion the animals began to respond to their robotic stimuli.

Although this might sound like an absurd experiment, communicating with animals has many real world applications, like stopping birds from flying over airports or warning bees about pesticides on plants.^[4]

6 Lego Robot With The Brain Of A Worm

Imagine mapping out the entire human brain, taking all of the pulses and electrical signals, and then uploading them into a machine. You could become immortal, in theory, living forever as a digital being. If that sounds like an ethical quagmire then you will be pleased to hear that scientists are a long way from achieving anything that sophisticated. But they have managed to pull off a similar feat using a tiny worm and some Lego.

In 2014, neuro-robotic researchers mapped out the brain of a small ringworm, all 302 neurons, and turned it into a digital simulation. Simulating an entire brain is remarkable in itself, but the scientists decided to feed their virtual brain into a Lego robot. The Lego bot was hardly sophisticated; it had a sound sensor for a nose and two motors to act as its motor cortex. But, with a little tweaking, the virtual worm brain was able to control the robot, driving it around a test station and stopping it from bashing into the walls.

Eventually the researchers hope to be able to simulate not just the brain but an entire worm, building the world’s first digital life form.^[5]

Top 10 Creepy Robots With Good Intentions

5 China’s Robot Traffic Police

In 2019, China began using robots to keep control of its roads. The Handan Public Security Bureau now employs three styles of robot that help their existing officers maintain order. The three robots are similar in design, but they each carry out very different functions.

One type, the road patrol robot, seeks out and documents any criminal behavior on the roads. Its designers have even given it a uniform and hat to look more like a human officer. Another, the accident warning robot, informs nearby drivers that the police are dealing with an incident. The third type is the advice traffic robot, which helps direct drivers at vehicle management stations, whilst also keeping an eye out for security risks.

People in China are no strangers to robot police officers. In 2016, authorities started to use a security robot in Shenzhen Airport, and in 2017 an E-Patrol Sheriff was introduced in Henan.^[6]

4 Julia, The Robot Who Taught Herself To Cook

Leaning to cook is a difficult task. To train as a professional chef takes years of study at culinary school and a huge dedication to learning the craft. But what if there were an easier way? What if, instead of spending years training, you could ask a robot to teach itself to cook and then have it make a meal for you?

Researchers at the University of Maryland are working on exactly that. Unlike most machines, their robot – called Julia – has no need for step by step instructions. Instead she has taught herself to cook by watching videos on YouTube and copying what she sees.

Right now Julia is nowhere near Michelin star level. Her culinary skills are limited to a few basic activities. But even that is an achievement. Tasks that might seem simple for you or me, like pouring a glass of water, are actually quite challenging for a robot.^[7]

3 Robot Fish Powered By Synthetic Blood

It sounds like something out of cheesy sci-fi horror movie: a robotic fish that runs on the power of blood. But in reality a mechanized fish is no villain. In fact it could turn out to be the future of energy-efficient robotics.

Energy storage is one of the main limitations in robotic design. Most devices either run out of power very quickly or lug around heavy batteries which slow them down. In contrast, the robot fish runs on a hydraulic fluid – similar to blood inside a real fish – and receives enough power to swim upstream for 36 hours. Speed, however, is not the robot’s strong point. It trudges along at a mere 1.5 body lengths per minute.

Nonetheless, the robotic fish is a remarkable feat of engineering. As Professor Rob Shepherd, one of the key developers at Cornell University, told journalists: “We want to take as many components in a robot and turn them into the energy system. If you have hydraulic liquids in your robot already, then you can tap into large stores of energy and give robots increased freedom to operate autonomously.”^[8]

2 Rwanda’s Healthcare Robots Fighting Coronavirus

In the Rwandan capital Kigali, robots are leading the fight against coronavirus. The use of mechanized practitioners at treatment centers in Gatenga and Kanyinya means staff spend less time around covid-positive patients, and are therefore less likely to contract the disease themselves.

The mass breakout of coronavirus has forced healthcare experts everywhere to think outside the box for ways to tackle the pandemic. Designed by Zorabots, the five robots are able to keep track of patients’ vital signs, convey video messages and correct people for not wearing their masks properly. One of the androids is currently stationed at Kigali International Airport screening up to 150 people a minute.^[9]

1 Aquanaut, The Shape-Shifting Submarine

The Transformers were one of the most popular franchises of the 1980s, and one of the most terrible film series of the 2000s. Transformers, for anyone who is not aware, are autonomous robots that can transform themselves into motor vehicles. These shape-shifting wonders captured the imaginations of children over the decades, but they always seemed like a remarkable work of fiction, something that could never be created for real. Until recently, that is.

Now scientists at Houston Mechatronics Inc. have developed a real-life Transformer – a semi-humanoid robot that can convert itself into a submarine. They named it Aquanaut. The creators wanted to build a machine that combined the freedom of a long-distance underwater vehicle with the precision of a remotely-operated bot.

Built on a $23 million budget, Aquanaut is mainly designed for use on deep sea oil and gas pipelines. The robot begins its descent in streamlined “submarine mode”, diving steadily through the water until it finds its target. After that, it begins its transformation. The top of the hull lifts up, and a head and two long arms are unfurled for work on the pipeline. As well as its metamorphic abilities, Aquanaut is carrying a range of sophisticated equipment. Its head has been fitted with a 3D sensor, stereo cameras, and a sonar system.^[10]

10 Interesting Facts About The Rise Of Sex Robots

Everyone’s heard of Einstein, Newton, Galileo, and Darwin. But they weren’t the only people who advanced our understanding of the physical universe by leaps and bounds. Sadly, many other men and women (emphasis on women, whose contributions to science have historically but unsurprisingly been criminally overlooked) never got the recognition they deserved for their hard work and groundbreaking discoveries.

The following researchers essentially founded epidemiology, discovered the Big Bang, laid out the periodic table of the elements, and made vital contributions to discoveries that other people got the credit for, like pulsars and the double helix structure of DNA. Maybe it’s time we give these big brains a little more love.

10. John Snow 

Most people know nothing about John Snow. But that’s a shame, because this 19th-century English researcher made groundbreaking contributions that forever altered the fields of public health and epidemiology, centering around his investigations into a cholera outbreak in mid-1800s London. When people across the city began falling seriously ill, Snow painstakingly studied and mapped the outbreak’s geographical distribution, identifying patterns that led him to the source of contamination. 

Through meticulous record-keeping and a combination of statistical analysis and observational data, he traced the majority of cases to a single water pump on Broad Street. Snow’s insights challenged the prevailing miasma theory, which blamed foul odors for the spread of diseases, and instead pointed to contaminated water as the primary culprit. His pioneering approach effectively established the foundation for modern epidemiology and became a testament to the power of data-driven decision-making. As if that wasn’t impressive enough, Snow also pioneered the field of surgical anesthesiology. So a pretty enormous number of people ever since have been spared short, brutal lifetimes of illness and suffering because of this one guy. How is he not a household name? 

9. Dmitri Mendeleev 

He’s far from unknown in the scientific community, but Dmitri Mendeleev isn’t exactly the household name he should be. Which is a surprise, since anyone who’s studied chemistry in school or seen an episode of Breaking Bad, has certainly come across his work. Yes, Mendeleev is responsible for developing the periodic table of the elements. 

His simple visual representation organized elements based on their properties and atomic weights, making the subject far easier to study for everyone. (We’re not saying it’s easy, but imagine passing 9th grade without it!) In 1869, he unveiled his creation, arranging the then-known elements into rows and columns, while still leaving gaps for yet-to-be-discovered ones. Remarkably, Mendeleev’s foresight allowed him to accurately predict the existence and properties of several elements that were unknown at the time, earning him widespread acclaim even after his death. His periodic table provided a comprehensive framework for understanding the relationships between elements and facilitated the prediction of new elements with remarkable precision, transforming chemistry and serving as the cornerstone for countless scientific discoveries and advancements in fields ranging from materials science to medicine. Let’s give the guy a little more love. 

8. Fritz Haber

Fritz Haber‘s contributions to science occupy a complex, and sadly controversial, space. On the one hand, this German chemist’s pioneering work in the field of chemical synthesis revolutionized agriculture, when he developed a process for synthesizing ammonia, a crucial component in the production of fertilizers, in 1909. This landmark discovery, known as the Haber-Bosch process, played a pivotal role in bolstering agricultural productivity and alleviating global food shortages, saving countless lives. 

However, Haber’s involvement in chemical warfare during World War I tarnished his reputation, as he led the development of chlorine and other poisonous gasses used to murderous effect on the battlefield: one of the darkest chapters of the war. This dual legacy has sparked ongoing discussions regarding the ethical responsibilities of scientists and the ethical boundaries of scientific advancements.

It’s highly likely his positive contributions outweighed his negative ones by saving countless innocent lives from starvation, but it’s impossible to decouple his name from the horrors of the trenches. 

7. Lise Meitner

Despite being a brilliant physicist whose contributions paved the way for groundbreaking discoveries, Lise Meitner’s name remains unfairly obscure to the general public. As a female scientist working in a male-dominated field, Meitner’s remarkable achievements were often overshadowed in favor of her supervisors and partners, even when it was her contributions that moved the ball forward. 

Meitner’s crowning achievement came in the late 1930s when she, along with colleague Otto Hahn, discovered nuclear fission, helping to set the stage for the atomic age. Through meticulous experimentation and theoretical insights, Meitner and Hahn discovered that bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons resulted in their splitting into smaller nuclei, followed by the release of an enormous amount of energy. This groundbreaking breakthrough laid the foundation for nuclear energy and, sadly, weaponry. Although Meitner’s pivotal role in the discovery was undeniable, she was unjustly overlooked when Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry alone in 1944. Nevertheless, her intellectual contributions and unwavering determination continue to inspire future generations of scientists. She did get some accolades later in life and after her death, however. Perhaps most notably, element 109, the heaviest element known to science, was named Meitnerium in her honor in 1992. 

6. Rosalind Franklin

Everyone’s heard of James Watson and Francis Crick, who discovered the distinctive double helix structure of DNA. But let’s not forget Rosalind Franklin, the unsung hero of this scientific saga, whose pioneering work in X-ray crystallography gave us crucial images that helped crack the code. In particular, “Photo 51,” one of her many X-ray diffraction photographs, provided the smoking gun Watson and Crick later used to make their groundbreaking discovery. Unfortunately, Franklin’s contributions were initially overlooked due to sexism of the day, poor reporting, and other factors, leaving her in the shadows of scientific recognition. 

Tragically, her early death in 1958 further dimmed the spotlight on her accomplishments. But in recent years, there’s been a growing appreciation for her expertise, dedication, and vital role in one of the greatest scientific moments of the 20th century. The scientific community has begun to recognize Franklin as an essential figure in the discovery of DNA’s structure. It’s time the public does, too. 

5. Norman Borlaug

There are many reasons mass hunger is no longer a major killer, even though there are vastly more mouths to feed today than there used to be when it was. There are many reasons for this, but Norman Borlaug, “Father of the Green Revolution,” is near the top of the list. His pioneering work in crop breeding and modernizing agricultural practices had an enormous impact on global food production, saving billions from famine. Yet, amazingly, he’s not the household name he deserves to be. 

Borlaug dedicated his life to developing high-yielding and disease-resistant crop varieties, launching the “Green Revolution.” By crossbreeding different strains of wheat and incorporating modern farming techniques, Borlaug achieved astonishing results, successfully developing varieties that could withstand harsh conditions and deliver higher yields, helping to feed a rapidly growing global population.

His revolutionary work extended beyond the laboratory, too. He shared his knowledge and collaborated with farmers and scientists worldwide, advocating for the adoption of modern agricultural practices. Soon, Asia, Latin America, and Africa were reaping the benefits. 

Fortunately ,Borlaug’s remarkable achievements did not go unnoticed in the scientific community, earning him a Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his work. 

4. Jocelyn Bell Burnell

As a young postgraduate student at Cambridge University in the 1960s, Jocelyn Bell Burnell made a remarkable discovery, while analyzing data from a radio telescope she helped construct: a highly precise, rhythmic pattern of radio signals originating from deep space. These mysterious signals, initially dubbed “LGM-1” (short for “Little Green Men”), turned out to be pulsars—rapidly spinning neutron stars with immense magnetic fields. The discovery, a testament to Burnell’s tenacity and scientific prowess, has inspired countless scientists and continues to be a captivating reminder of the wonders awaiting exploration beyond our world.

But she never got the recognition she deserved, with the 1974 Nobel Prize for the discovery going to two men instead: her supervisor, Antony Hewish, and astronomer Martin Ryle. 

Jocelyn Bell Burnell’s pioneering spirit and enduring legacy remind us of the boundless possibilities of scientific exploration and the importance of recognizing the contributions of scientists from all backgrounds. Sadly, it’s also a reminder of just how recently we were completely overlooking the contributions of women, even when they were proving their ability in front of our faces. 

3. Georges Lamaitre

When pondering the origins of the universe, the name Georges Lemaître is one that deserves a lot more recognition than it actually gets. This Belgian priest, mathematician, and astronomer proposed a radical idea in the early 20th century: that the universe originated from an initial, infinitesimally small singularity and expanded rapidly: a cosmic explosion known ever after as the  “Big Bang.” Building upon Einstein’s theory of general relativity, Lemaître developed mathematical models that supported the concept, laying the groundwork for the modern incarnation of the theory and revolutionizing our understanding of the universe forever.  

Lemaître’s theories were met with initial skepticism in the scientific community (and plenty of cultural backlash today), but gained recognition and acceptance among his peers over time. Today, his ideas form the very basis of modern cosmology, and serve as a much-needed reminder that science and faith don’t need to be eternally at odds. Maybe if more people knew that a priest first proposed the concept of the Big Bang, his theories wouldn’t have caused such a cultural rift. 

2. Barbara McClintock

Despite her groundbreaking contributions in the field of genetics, Barbara McClintock‘s name remains almost entirely unfamiliar outside the scientific community. But that really shouldn’t be the case. Through her meticulous research on maize (corn) plants, McClintock made a groundbreaking discovery in the 1940s: she unveiled the existence of mobile genetic elements, known as transposons or “jumping genes,” which can change their position within the genome. Sounds a little convoluted, we’ll admit, but this discovery challenged the prevailing notion that genes were static entities and shed light on the dynamic nature of genetic regulation.

As is the case with most groundbreaking discoveries that challenge the prevailing understanding of the day (especially those made by women), McClintock’s work was initially met with skepticism and largely overlooked by the scientific community. It wasn’t until several decades later that her discoveries were fully appreciated, eventually making her the first woman to ever receive the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in 1983. 

McClintock’s discoveries transformed our understanding of genetic regulation, highlighting the intricate dance of genes within our genomes. And her legacy is a reminder that science is all about challenging what we think we know, even if it forces us to toss existing theories in the trash.

1. Gerty and Carl Cori

Ever heard of Gerty and Carl Cori, a husband and wife duo who changed our understanding of carbohydrate metabolism? Yeah, probably not (as evidenced by their placement on this list). But it’s time we change that.

In the early 20th century, the Coris focused their research on understanding the intricate processes by which carbohydrates are broken down and utilized in the body. They elucidated the biochemical pathway now known as the Cori cycle, explaining how glucose is converted into energy and stored as glycogen in the liver. This discovery was instrumental in unraveling the complexities of carbohydrate metabolism and provided key insights into disorders such as diabetes and glycogen storage diseases. So yes, their research saved lives. Perhaps even yours. 

Despite their groundbreaking work, prevailing gender norms of the time robbed them of well-earned recognition. Gerty, in particular, encountered obstacles in her career progression and often went unrecognized for her contributions. Nevertheless, they were jointly awarded the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries related to carbohydrate metabolism.

Plastic waste is a never-ending world problem. Everyone knows the world is drowning in plastic. Literally. Researchers predict that if we keep going the way we are, there will be more plastic than fish in the ocean by 2050. However, scientists have been hard at work developing clever and inventive things to do with all of those plastic bags, bottles, and straws.

More than merely recycling, these innovators have come up with surprising ways to transform plastic waste into something else entirely. For example, used plastic has been turned into items such as vanilla flavoring, protein powder, and bricks stronger than concrete.

Related: Top 10 Fascinating Things Scientists Discovered About Salt

10 Plastic Bottles Converted into Vanilla Flavoring

In the category of killing two birds with one stone, scientists are working to solve the problem of plastic bottle waste at the same time as they deal with the world’s high demand for vanilla flavoring. Vanillin is what makes the odor and flavor of vanilla, and it’s either extracted naturally from vanilla beans or made from chemicals. As a result, vanillin is used in more products than just baked goods. The substance is also found in a variety of foods and even in things like cleaning products and cosmetics.

As the global demand for vanillin increases, plastic bottles may hold the answer. Two researchers at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland have figured out how to convert terephthalic acid into vanillin using E. coli bacteria. (Terephthalic acid is the basic subunit broken down from plastic bottles made with polyethylene terephthalate.) Strangely enough, terephthalic acid and vanillin are similar in their chemical composition, and it didn’t take much for the researchers to convert the substance to vanillin.^[1]

9 Plastic into Jet Fuel in Less Than an Hour

Although chemical recycling of plastic waste creates high-quality products and has been possible for some time, it’s generally cost-prohibitive as it requires massive amounts of energy and long processing times. However, researchers at Washington State University have come up with a way to convert plastic into jet fuel in less than an hour.

The researchers converted polyethylene (a commonly used form of plastic) into jet fuel and other high-value lubricants. They did this by creating a catalytic process that converted almost 90% of the plastic into fuel. And it took them less than an hour to do so. The process wasn’t only faster but used less energy than previous methods. The team is currently working on upgrading its conversion process for commercial use. With its lower temperatures and fast processing times, their discovery could be a game-changer in the world of chemically recycling plastic.^[2]

8 Plastic Could Help End Sand Shortages

Considering the vast number of expansive beaches across the globe, it may be hard to believe the world is experiencing a sand shortage. However, a lot of sand is needed for construction and manufacturing, and it’s also used to make concrete. But the stuff you see on the beach is too salty, and the sand from the desert is too smooth. As a result, sand for construction tends to be dredged from rivers, which leads to all sorts of environmental problems, and has been banned in many countries leading to a bizarre underworld of sand mining controlled by “sand mafias.”

Researchers are working on this and have found plastic waste can be sorted, cleaned, shredded, and crushed into sand when mixing concrete. This method replaced up to 10% of the sand used in the concrete mix while retaining the same properties. Since concrete is made up of about 25% sand, replacing 10% with plastic could have a sizeable impact on reducing the world’s need for “mafia” sand.^[3]

7 Turning Plastic into Fertilizer

It’s estimated that just under 9% of plastic waste is recycled. The rest is tossed and ends up dumped in landfills and floating in the oceans. Experts hope to solve this problem by finding ways in which plastic can easily be reused rather than thrown away. A team of researchers at the Tokyo Institute of Technology has discovered a method to chemically convert bio-based plastics into fertilizer. Bio-based plastics are used as a more sustainable alternative to petroleum-based plastics.

The scientists used the process of ammonolysis to create urea (a nitrogen-rich substance) out of ISB, which is a byproduct of (PIC) a bio-based plastic. To test out the fertilizer, the researchers conducted plant growth experiments and found the plants which used the PIC fertilizer grew better than plants that were only given regular fertilizer.^[4]

6 Plastic Waste Converted Into T-Shirts

How about solving the world’s plastic bag problem by turning plastic bags into high-tech workout clothes that can easily be recycled? A study published in Nature Sustainability looks to do just that. In the study, researchers took polyethylene, the most common plastic used today and the type of plastic that makes up plastic bags, and turned it into a wearable fabric.

The fabric is made by weaving polythene fibers on industrial looms into textiles that researchers say are less damaging to the environment than traditional textiles like wool and cotton. The fibers can be dyed into different colors before the weaving process. Instead of repelling water as plastic does, these fibers allow water to escape. This means when you workout, your sweat won’t get trapped inside of the clothing but will wick away, making the materials suitable for exercise. Also, clothes made from polythene material can be washed in cold water, further helping the environment by reducing the need for hot water.^[5]

5 Convert Plastic into Electricity

What if, instead of polluting the oceans, plastic waste could be converted into a chemical that is used to generate electricity in power plants and electric cars? Researchers at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore (NTU Singapore) found that they could convert plastic waste into formic acid by using sunlight. Formic acid is a valuable chemical used in fuel cells to generate electricity.

By using a photocatalyst, powered by sunlight, to convert the plastic waste, the chemists hoped to develop a sustainable and environmentally friendly method for the conversion. This method avoids the need to generate high heat levels by burning fossil fuels. The team continues to improve the process and is working on breaking down plastics to produce fuels such as hydrogen gas.^[6]

4 Plastic Turned into a Detergent

In another approach that uses cleaner methods for breaking down plastic waste, instead of requiring high levels of energy for the process, researchers found a way to create a liquid from plastic waste that can be used to make detergents. Teams collaborating from UC Santa Barbara, the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, and Cornell discovered a process in which polyethylene can be turned into smaller molecules without using high temperatures and without releasing greenhouse gases.

The scientists used a catalyst to remove a little bit of hydrogen from the plastic’s polymer chain and then used that hydrogen to cut the carbon chain, making smaller pieces. The hydrogen had to be used right away to cut the chains, thus providing enough energy to make more hydrogen. After many repetitions, the researchers ended up with a liquid that could be used to make detergents.^[7]

3 Plastic Milk Jugs Converted into Very Strong Bricks

Nzambi Matee from Nairobi, Kenya, takes recycled trash that other recycling facilities can’t use, such as sandwich bags, milk jugs, and ropes, and turns the waste into sturdy plastic bricks. Her company, Gjenge Makers uses sand and plastic mixed together and heats them at high temperatures, compressing them into bricks. Though you may not expect it, her plastic bricks are stronger than concrete.

The great thing about this product is that it’s made from the sort of materials that usually end up in landfills because recycling centers can’t accept them. The bricks consist of high-density polyethylene (milk and shampoo bottles), low-density polyethylene (cereal bags and sandwich bags), and polypropylene (ropes and buckets). And because neither the process nor the materials are expensive, Mattee can keep the cost of the bricks low, making the product affordable for Kenyan citizens.^[8]

2 Plastic Waste Converted into Food

Would you eat a protein powder that was formerly a used plastic bottle? Two professors from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and Michigan Technological University are hoping someone will. Their research aims to solve the problems of world hunger and overflowing landfills. Ting Lu and Stephen Techtmann received the Merck KGaA’s Future Insight Prize for their work in converting plastic waste into food by using microorganisms to metabolize the waste.

The researchers accomplished this by breaking down plastic waste and feeding it to hungry plastic-loving bacteria. As the bacteria eat the plastic, they thrive, creating more bacteria cells that can be dried and turned into edible protein powder. This leaves us with the question, will consumers be willing to accept a food product that was originally made from plastic trash?^[9]

1 Converting Plastic Back into Plastic

One major problem with recycling materials is that plastic continues to degrade over time. Plastic can’t be infinitely recycled. Recycling will not stop plastic waste from ending up in a landfill, but it does delay it for a bit. However, what if scientists could break down plastic waste by using chemical methods and turn it back into its original chemical building blocks? From there, the materials could then be used to create brand-new plastic products.

When plastic is melted and reused, it is harder to process and becomes a lower-grade plastic. Eventually, its polymer chains break down so much they can no longer be reused and get thrown away. Scientists hope to use chemical recycling to solve this problem by breaking the plastic down to its original materials. It can then be used to create new, higher-quality plastic products and stay out of landfills.^[10]

The line between crazy and genius is thin, and in science, many examples of people blurring that line exist. While scientists start their experiments hoping to make striking discoveries, they can go downright apish when they don’t make a discovery. Some sacrifice their subjects while others borderline torture their volunteers. This list presents ten mad scientists in history, detailing the ambitious pursuits that led to their fame or infamy.

Related: 10 Crazy Scientific Theories That Used To Be Accepted As True

10 Paracelsus (1493–1541)

Ever wondered how you could create a man? Paracelsus was a botanist who thought there was a teeny-tiny yet fully formed human inside every sperm. He even had a 40-day recipe to prove his idea, complete with instructions to make this venture successful.

While the idea sounds preposterous in a world that has made immense discoveries in biology, Paracelsus’s idea was not as strange in his time. As a scientist from the 16th century, Paracelsus advanced the theory of preformation—which believed that organisms grew from small versions of themselves. In his instructions on creating life, Paracelsus even described how the sperm held the key to life. For the scientist, a creator only required the right incubation to develop a new human.

If you’re keen on trying out Paracelsus’s 40-day recipe on how to build a human, you’ll need a warm incubation device and human blood. But if you succeed, you’ll be the first because even Paracelsus couldn’t pull it off.

9 Josef Mengele (1911–1979)

War is tough, but what’s harder is what it reveals about the human condition: inhumanity. Joseph Mengele was a brilliant scientist whose power and influence during the Nazi era earned him an infamous reputation as the “Angel of Death.”

As a scientist assigned to the Auschwitz camps during the Second World War, Mengele performed bizarre experiments with human subjects. Some core interests of the mad scientist bordered on examining connections between twins, eye pigmentation, and persons with disabilities. The insane reality of his experiments is that he forcefully used live prisoners as guinea pigs for his experiments.

Modern scientists are horrified by the lengths that Josef Mengele went to as he attempted to study human biology. Sadly, after all his trials, they didn’t amount to anything besides shedding light on the horrors of Hitler’s reign.

8 Giovanni Aldini (1762–1834)

As far as celebrity scientists go, Giovanni Aldini was a rockstar with global fame. At a time when electricity was still a new invention, Aldini traveled across Europe with the sole purpose of electrifying subjects. This may sound horrific, and it was, but it was all in pursuit of science.

In his travels, Aldini became an entertainer who gave audiences the rare spectacle of witnessing what happens when corpses are electrocuted. In a demonstration, Aldini would attach electric nodes to observe how the body reacts. When attached to a human or ox head, the facial muscles would contort, teeth would chatter, and even eye sockets would pop out. Where the body was involved, the limbs and parts moved in motion, giving the impression that the organism was suffering or reanimating.

Yet, besides his antics, Aldini was one of the few scientists who managed to cure mentally ill patients with shocks to the brain. His curious and interesting experiments indicated the power of electricity in science.

7 William Buckland (1784–1856)

William Buckland is as mad a scientist as they come. On the one hand, he was the brilliant scientist who walked beside Charles Darwin and was the first man to describe the fossilized dinosaur, the Megalosaurus. For the English intelli-vore, science had so much to teach, and he was willing to learn and, at other times, taste it. Yes, he’s also famous as the man who could eat anything.

Besides his active pursuit of science, Buckland scoops the award for the man with a diverse palate, devouring anything from puppy, panther, and kangaroo and to sea slugs. According to his records, the most unpalatable things he ever tasted were the mole and bluebottle fly that wouldn’t just sit right with his taste buds. But, while eating every being that walks on Earth is impressive, Buckland didn’t stop there.

One famous story about Buckland is that he was once a guest at a fancy dinner where the mummified heart of Louis XI was on display. As a piece of the precious relic was passed for the guests to observe, Buckland decided to add it to his long list of culinary accomplishments. He became the mad scientist that ate the heart of a king. This is not a bragging point most scientists can claim. Nor one I would want to add to my resume.

6 Sidney Gottlieb (1918–1999)

Sidney Gottlieb is a mad scientist, by all accounts, one responsible for the CIA’s quest for mind control. As a chemist for the USA’s CIA, Gottlieb participated in some of the darkest experiments in recent history. In the 1950s and ’60s, Gottlieb was the mind behind MKUltra—a mind control program.

Some of Gottlieb’s most infamous experiments involved the use of cocaine, THC, heroin, and LSD. Gottlieb’s ruse for continuing his projects was the justification that it would help in the discovery of truth serum. However, despite all his pursuits, the LSD and other components didn’t aid interrogations but instead hindered them.

Gottlieb’s work on Project MKUltra is frowned upon, mostly because the scientist experimented on both knowing and unknowing Americans. As far as mad scientists with unquenchable power go, Gottlieb is one of the maddest.

5 Carney Landis (1897–1962)

Carney Landis was a psychology graduate at the University of Minnesota who decided to study human emotions. In his experiment, Landis hoped to spot commonalities between human reactions to various triggers.

What made Landis a mad scientist, and what led many to call him an unethical psychologist, was how he executed his experiment. In the experiment, Landis took pictures of his fellow students as they performed various acts; the more bizarre, the better. Some activities included smelling ammonia and sticking hands in buckets filled with the slimiest frogs and electric shock wires. While these instances are weird, they’re still tolerable.

The act that sent everyone through the roof was the forced decapitation of a live rat. Participants that refused to do it on their own were still captured watching Landis do it himself as he recorded their reactions. Almost all participants experienced trauma and confusion after the experiments, whose outcomes were not as convincing. The only saving grace in this story is that Landis never massacred another rodent as he went along to practice sexual psychopathology.

4 Johann Conrad Dippel (1673–1734)

Johann Conrad Dippel was your everyday scientist back when alchemy was the thing. Alchemists were practically scientists who dedicated their lives to discovering elixirs by manipulating all kinds of metals. Like his peers, Dippel was a notorious resident of Castle Frankenstein, a hilltop castle that was the stuff of myth and legend.

As the official alchemist at Castle Frankenstein, Dippel experimented with everything. The most peculiar ingredients for his elixirs included leather, ivory, blood, and horns stripped from human cadavers. While the authenticity of his elixirs was never confirmed, Dippel claimed to have found a one-all cure for all ails, from epilepsy to common colds.

But when he wasn’t solving society’s ills, the scientist was obsessed with soul transplants. Yes, corpses and grave robbers were involved. All is fair in love and science, right? Dippel had the brilliant idea that one could transfer a soul from one corpse to another using lubricant, a hose, and a funnel! Naturally, Dippel’s pursuits inspired the Frankenstein monster stories, but that’s a tale for another day.

3 Jose Delgado (1915–2011)

Jose Manuel Delgado is one of the most brilliant scientists in recent history. Before Delgado, many before him had toyed with the idea that electricity could manipulate the brain. Identifying the promise in the idea, Delgado took it to the next level, successfully controlling animals and humans with electrodes.

In what seems like a product of science fiction minds, Delgado successfully developed technologies that manipulated the mind electrically using a brain chip. Like the movies, Delgado stimulated the neural tissues of monkeys, controlling them with nothing but remote control. Gradually, the mad scientist perfected the technology and used it on a bull. The experiment was incredible since he was able to stop the bull right before it charged straight for him!

The experiments were so advanced that at least 20 humans were involved in his experiments. Envisioning the success of his technology, Delgado even bragged that generals and their armies would soon be controlled remotely through electric brain stimulation. He was truly ahead of his time, or maybe that’s just the electrode implants speaking.

2 Robert Knox (1791–1862)

Anatomy was one of the most prestigious pursuits for scientists of the 19th century. In this market, Robert Knox was a legend, a true pioneer of comparative anatomy who also doubled as a lecturer. Sadly, like all mad scientists, Knox went to some depths that destroyed his stellar reputation.

Since anatomy requires one major component, bodies, Knox relied on two suppliers. At the time, demand outweighed supply, and the two gentlemen, Burke and Hare, resorted to killing people and supplying them to Knox. Gradually, the law caught up with the gentlemen after their exploits were too successful. Investigations revealed that they were responsible for a 16-person killing spree where Knox was indirectly implicated alongside the crooked body snatchers.

The accepted “ask no question” practice toward cadavers bit Knox, whose reputation took a huge hit. The incident was so grand that from the media frenzy, the authorities came up with the Anatomy Act of 1832. The pursuit of cadavers truly killed Robert Knox’s career.

1 Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov (1870–1932)

In science, there’s nothing like too far, and Ilya Ivanovich Ivanov subscribed to this creed. Ivanov created the strangest and creepiest hybrids as a Russian specialist in interspecific hybridization and artificial insemination. To carry out his unholy experiments, Ivanov even traveled to Guinea, West Africa, where he hoped to cross-breed humans and apes.

When Russia sought worldwide dominion, the state saw Ivanov’s experiments as key to discovering super-strong hairy warriors. Backed with financial and political support, Ivanov set out on the secret mission that collapsed soon after. Fortunately, Ivanov found it impossible to create a hybrid between humans and our ape relatives.

Yet, despite the failures of his ape-human project, Ivanov was successful in other ventures. He created a zeedonk (zebra-donkey hybrid), a zubron (bison-cow hybrid), a guinea-pig rabbit, an antelope-cow, and even a mouse-rat. These bizarre incarnations made him a legend within scientific circles, but he never could overcome the negative publicity from the ape-human trials. As far as experiments go, we’re sure glad some failed.