The phrase “history is written by the victors” rings true, yet every so often, archaeologists and scholars dig up evidence that forces us to rewrite the story. Below are ten astonishing discoveries lost that could reshape what we know about humanity’s past.

10. Underground Ani

Once the capital of the Kingdom of Armenia, the 5,000‑year‑old city of Ani now sits inside modern Turkey’s borders. Famous as the “City of 1,001 Churches” and the “City of Forty Gates,” Ani was a powerful, prosperous hub before being abandoned over three centuries ago. Its tumultuous past saw it change hands many times—Armenians, Byzantines, Georgians, Kurds, Ottoman Turks, and Russians all ruled it at one point.

After World War I, Turkish officials ordered the demolition of Ani’s monuments, and although the demolition was incomplete, looters and vandals further ruined the site. The story seemed to end in tragedy until researchers revealed a hidden subterranean complex at the 2014 Kars Symposium. Historian Sezai Yazıcı recounted how George Ivanovich Gurdjieff and his companion Pogosyan, while tunneling beneath Ani in the 1880s, noticed a change in soil composition. Their excavation uncovered a Mesopotamian‑era school from the sixth and seventh centuries, alongside letters written in an ancient Armenian script.

Italian excavators confirmed in 1915 that this underground Ani housed a school, monastery, rock‑cut dwellings, monk cells, water channels, meditation chambers, and over 500 meters (1,600 ft) of intricate tunnels. Researchers have identified at least 823 structures and caves, with a total of 823 distinct features. Yazıcı now urges Turkey’s Culture and Tourism Ministry to spotlight this underground marvel to the world.

9. Silla

Initially one of three Korean kingdoms—Silla, Goguryeo, and Baekje—Silla emerged in 57 BC as a modest tribal entity. Over centuries, it expanded to dominate more than half of the Korean peninsula, especially the southern region. To cement royal authority, the Kim dynasty introduced a “bone rank” system called kolpum, which dictated who could rule, career paths, house size, carriage type, and even clothing colors.

In alliance with China, Silla conquered Baekje in 660 AD and Goguryeo in 668 AD, forming the “Unified Silla” kingdom. Yet many aspects remain mysterious, notably the Hwarang—an elite group of young men whose exact military and religious roles continue to spark debate. Buddhism became the dominant cultural force, influencing art, tradition, and governance. The capital, Gyeongju, still boasts spectacular Buddhist sculptures and royal tombs. Early burial customs placed valuable jewelry, weapons, and pottery with the dead, but after Buddhism’s rise, such treasures were displayed publicly, reflecting the belief that art serves the living.

During the Unified Silla era, temples like the famed Bulguksa were restored, showcasing Tang‑inspired architecture. The kingdom also pioneered movable‑type printing roughly two centuries before Gutenberg. In 935 AD, the Goryeo dynasty overtook Unified Silla, which, at 992 years, holds the record as Korea’s longest‑lasting kingdom. While Silla’s cultural legacy is evident within Korea, it remains largely unknown in the West.

8. The Cucuteni‑Trypillian Culture

In 1893, archaeologists uncovered the village of Trypillia in central Ukraine, sparking a wave of research into a culture that spanned 35,000 sq km across present‑day Ukraine, Romania, and Moldova. Existing from 5,400 BC to 2,700 BC, some of its cities housed up to 15,000 inhabitants and featured thousands of structures, with settlements often only 3–4 km apart.

The Cucuteni‑Trypillian people organized a matriarchal society that revered a Great Goddess and believed in an afterlife. Excavations revealed altars, richly decorated pottery, and metal figurines. Artistic depictions show women using ploughs, weaving pottery, and creating clothing, while men hunted, raised livestock, and crafted tools.

City planning involved clay models of buildings. Using copper and stone axes, they felled massive numbers of trees to erect single‑ and multistoried structures, coating walls and floors with white‑and‑red clay to ward off evil spirits. Temples and public edifices dotted their settlements. Intriguingly, they practiced a ritual of burning entire villages every 60–80 years, sometimes rebuilding on the same foundations. Romanian archaeologists have uncovered up to 13 settlement layers in a single location, suggesting periodic reconstruction. Scholars remain divided over the motive behind this cyclical destruction, leaving the mystery unsolved.

7. The Sican Culture

From roughly AD 750 to 1,375, the Sican culture thrived in Peru’s Lambayeque Valley. Though likely descended from the Moche, the exact origins remain hazy. Legend speaks of a mythic leader, Naymlap, who arrived by sea and founded palaces and temples, while scholars suggest the Sican branched off from the Wari civilization in the eighth century.

The Sican adopted irrigation techniques akin to the Moche but differed in burial customs: elites were interred seated upright, surrounded by gold and silver artifacts. Evidence points to ritual mass human sacrifice to honor death, despite the culture’s generally peaceful nature.

Upper‑class Sican individuals favored opulent attire—tunics, gloves, gold jewelry, and feathered headdresses. Their artistic output included polished black pottery and exquisite gold metalwork inlaid with turquoise, ranking among the Andes’ finest creations. According to myth, Naymlap’s twelve grandsons ruled until one, under a witch’s influence, moved a forbidden female stone idol, triggering catastrophic floods around AD 1,100. Scientific analysis of ice cores supports an El Niño event during that period.

The ensuing disaster forced the Sican to abandon their copper‑based monetary system, many religious structures, and the primary city of Batan Grande, which suffered severe flood damage—some scholars argue the city may have been deliberately burned. The culture later relocated its capital to Tucume before succumbing to Chimu conquest in the fourteenth century.

6. The Qijia Culture

Dead men tell mysterious tales, at least where the Qijia culture is concerned. In the 1920s, a Swedish geologist uncovered the first evidence of the Qijia people in Gansu in northwestern China. Around the mid-20th and early 21st centuries, more sites were found, suggesting that the Qijia culture existed from about 2250 BC to 1900 BC.

Qijia sites were dotted along the upper Yellow River and various rivers that flowed into it. Despite the rivers, the climate was dry, leading the Qijia people to grow suitable crops and to raise animals like goats, pigs, and sheep. They lived in small settlements with houses that were partly subterranean.

Within Qijia tombs, archaeologists found evidence of human sacrifices, although no one knows whom they sacrificed or why. Families were often buried in a single tomb, along with pottery, jewelry, and weapons. Scientists also discovered “bone divination lots,” which are artifacts used to predict the future.

In 1999, Chinese archaeologists stumbled upon a Qijia mystery that astounded them. They were excavating a half‑underground house in a 400‑dwelling village when they discovered 14 sets of human bones in three groups of three to five people each. The archaeologists had never seen so many ancient people in one Chinese house.

With each group composed of one adult protecting two to four children, it looked like everyone had died suddenly in a catastrophic event. “Something enormously extraordinary must have happened to these ancients,” said archaeologist Zhao Zhinjun to the China Internet Information Center, a Chinese government portal site. “The young and strong have run for [their] life, leaving behind children and the elderly who then appeared to have hid in places they thought were safe to shelter in.”

Over time, scientists believed they solved the mystery. It appeared that a major earthquake had hit the village, possibly followed by flooding. Although there was catastrophic damage, one interesting artifact was preserved. Archaeologists discovered a pottery bowl upside down on the floor. When they turned it over, they found the earliest noodle known to exist in China.

5. The Srubna Culture

The Srubna (aka “Srubnaya”) culture existed from approximately 1950 BC to 1200 BC in the area from the Ural Mountains to central Ukraine. In Russian, srub means “timber framework,” which explains why this culture is best known for its burial chambers, resembling log cabins made of timber, that are located under burial mounds called “kurgans.”

The burial chambers, which were considered to be houses of the dead, looked a lot like rooms that the Srubna people lived in aboveground. Even so, over 95 percent of the Srubna dead were buried in regular earthen graves. So the name of the culture is a bit misleading. Researchers have found thousands of small Srubna settlements throughout Eastern Europe, most with only a few houses each, but the settlements do have differences. So it’s more of a family of cultures. Nevertheless, archaeologists know so little about these people that they really haven’t been able to divide them into clear groups.

Besides grave sites, scientists have mostly found pottery shards and tools made of stone or bronze. Many of the sites appear to be poor in a material sense. There’s some evidence of agriculture but more of animal breeding, mainly cows, horses, pigs, and sheep. Again, it differs by region, and scientists debate how to interpret their findings.

In 2011, archaeologists discovered what appeared to be a stone sundial in one of the Srubna burial mounds. A researcher at Southern Federal University in Russia confirmed that the markings would have shown time accurately. In fact, it was surprisingly sophisticated from a geometry perspective.

4. Dorset Culture

Named by archaeologists after the location of an excavation site, the primitive Dorset people inhabited Arctic Canada and Greenland from about 800 BC to AD 1300. No one’s sure where they originated or why they ultimately disappeared, but we do know that they were a largely isolated people.

They settled on the coasts, fishing and hunting nearby animals for food. Archaeologists have combined scientific analysis with stories told by the Inuit of the “Tunit” (their name for the Dorset people), whom the Inuit met about 1,000 years ago when they crossed from Alaska into Arctic Canada.

According to the Inuit, the Dorset people were extremely strong but gentle giants who were skilled hunters. They could snap the neck of a walrus with a harpoon line then drag the animal home.

Their tools were a mystery. They were so small and precise that they seemed unfit for harpooning or cutting up animals, scraping skins, or performing daily household chores. Yet the Dorset were able to manipulate tools skillfully, often at the end of a handle. The Dorset were frequent traders, which archaeologists could trace from unusual materials like meteorite iron that was specific to that region. However, there’s little evidence that the Dorset people made technological advances. It appears that they didn’t use dogsleds or kayaks in their daily lives.

Although the Dorset people were timid around outsiders, the Inuit claim that the Dorset men were madly in love with their wives. Perhaps that’s because so few women appeared to live among them. According to DNA analysis, there was little diversity in maternally inherited DNA in the studied samples, which means few women migrated with the men to Arctic Canada and Greenland. The Dorset people didn’t appear to intermarry or have sex with visitors from other cultures. Archaeologists can’t explain why the Dorset people so completely isolated themselves but think it may be due to their spiritual beliefs.

3. Magan Culture

About 5,000 years ago in the third millennium BC, an ancient culture known as the Magan civilization is believed to have inhabited what is now northeastern Oman. Archaeologists are excavating the sites of Bat, Al‑Khutm, and Al‑Ayn, believing they were ancient trading centers with Mesopotamia from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. There’s also a large cemetery and massive stone structures known as “towers,” which appear to be platforms for temples, houses, or some other missing structures. Archaeologists don’t understand how they were used yet.

Magan was believed to be a major copper mining site, whose people actively traded with other cultures. It’s a real mystery trying to determine who the Magan people were, what they did, and even exactly where they were located. “The people of Magan did not use writing or glyptic arts to record their history or organize their societies, so we know very little about their way of life,” wrote Christopher Thornton, consulting scholar at the Penn Museum.

The Magan people obviously had a significant impact on their neighbors because other cultures name the Magan in their writings. Accounts of trade from the Assyrian, Indus Valley, and Sumerian civilizations call Magan “the mountain of copper” and credit their economic success to trading with Magan in copper, stone, and wood.

2. Unnamed And Previously Unknown Culture

In 2014, a team of archaeologists from Polish, Peruvian, and Colombian universities announced a startling discovery in the northern Atacama Desert in Peru. They found 150 mummies from an unknown culture that dated to a period from the fourth to the seventh century AD, almost 500 years before the Tiwanaku (a civilization that predated the Inca) appeared in the region.

Wrapped in mats, cotton shrouds, or nets, the bodies were buried in the sand without any stone structures to give them away, which may explain why grave robbers never found them. Although archaeologists knew nothing of these people before this recent discovery, the burials do give us some limited information about their culture.

In addition to maces that can crush skulls, the scientists found some bows, quivers, and obsidian heads in the graves, which may indicate that these are elite people who are taking their power with them into another life. The presence of bows was particularly interesting because they’re so rare in Peru. A llama was also found, which means these animals were brought into this area of Peru far earlier than we thought.

The archaeologists discovered pottery, tools, and metal jewelry buried with the bodies. The mummies also had reed withes fastened to their ears. The withes extended to the surface, which may mean they were communication devices used by the living to talk to the dead.

“We learned a lot about what equipment had been used, such as baskets and fishing nets,” said lead researcher Jozef Szykulski to IBTimes UK, “what these people were doing, which was agriculture and fishing, how they dressed, what ornaments they wore and even how they combed their hair.” All of these details indicate an advanced culture lived in that part of Peru at a time when we thought it was uninhabited.

1. Hongshan

Although vigorously debated by different factions of researchers at the moment, the history of Chinese civilization may be in for a major rewrite. Until recently, the Xia Dynasty was believed to be the wellspring of Chinese civilization in the Yellow River Valley region around 4,100 years ago. But now, historians are debating whether Chinese civilization actually began with the Hongshan culture 6,500 years ago and is thousands of years older than we thought.

We know that the Hongshan lived in an area between Inner Mongolia and what is now Liaoning and Hebei Provinces in northeastern China. Even though they produced some of the earliest jade artifacts, including the first known dragon symbol, the Hongshan culture is usually disregarded because it was considered to be too far from the original source of Chinese civilization.

That may be changing. The Hongshan culture was complex, as suggested by a Goddess Temple in their area and archaeological evidence that they traded with shepherds from Mongolia. Scientists have also found many Hongshan artifacts in the Hunshandake Sandy Lands, which is 300 kilometers (185 mi) farther west than where the Hongshan culture was originally discovered. The most surprising element was that the artifacts suggested that numerous Hongshan fished and hunted in the region. Originally, the desert in Hunshandake was believed to be around one million years old. But new research estimates the desert’s age at a mere 4,000 years old.

That means the climate changed radically while the Hongshan lived there. “We’re amazed by how much water there was back then,” paleoclimatologist Louis Scuderi told LiveScience. “There were very, very large lakes, and grasslands and forests. And based on all the artifacts we’ve found out there, there was clearly a very large population along the lake shores.”

Some scientists believe that when the 20,000‑square‑kilometer (7,800 mi²) Hunshandake was turned into a desert about 4,200 years ago, the Hongshan were forced to migrate south for survival. As they moved into other areas, they may have played a more important role in creating Chinese civilization than we originally realized.

These ten discoveries lost demonstrate how much of our past remains hidden beneath the earth, in forgotten ruins, or locked within ancient artifacts. Each new find nudges us closer to a fuller picture of humanity’s shared story.

Big corporations pour billions into crafting promotions, loyalty schemes, and return policies—yet every once in a while a savvy shopper uncovers a crack in the system and turns it upside down. From stockpiling pudding‑cup barcodes to rack up airline miles to sending back a wilted Christmas tree for a refund, these ten clever loopholes were so audacious that the companies involved were forced to rewrite the rulebook.

10 clever loopholes that reshaped corporate policies

10 Amazon Reviewers Who Got Paid in Gift Cards

In the early 2010s, Amazon’s product‑review ecosystem turned into a hotbed for fabricated ratings. While the marketplace originally encouraged genuine user feedback, enterprising sellers quickly discovered a way to game the system. Private groups on platforms like Facebook, WhatsApp, and Reddit set up covert arrangements: shoppers would buy an item, post a glowing five‑star review, and then receive a full refund via PayPal or, more subtly, an Amazon gift‑card. In many cases a modest “bonus” was tossed in as well.

This arrangement flourished because Amazon only required the superficial “verified purchase” badge, and sellers were desperate to rise above the competition. A wide range of products—from cheap phone chargers to premium kitchen knives—shot up the search rankings with suspiciously positive commentary. Some reviewers were reportedly raking in thousands of dollars each month by cycling through products and reviews.

Amazon finally cracked down in 2016, rolling out a sweeping policy that banned any incentivized reviews unless they originated from its tightly controlled Vine Program. The company also purged tens of thousands of fraudulent reviews and permanently banned the sellers and users involved. Although underground networks still linger, the crackdown effectively sealed one of the most exploited consumer‑company loopholes in e‑commerce history.

9 Starbucks Gold Card Status via $1 Gift Card Reloads

Starbucks once measured loyalty by the number of separate transactions a customer completed in a year, awarding Gold status after 30 distinct purchases. Clever patrons realized they could achieve the coveted tier for a fraction of the cost by buying a $5 gift card and then reloading it with $1 thirty times—either online or at the register. Each reload counted as a unique transaction, granting the user Gold‑level perks such as free drinks and birthday rewards for a total outlay of just $30.

The hack spread like wildfire across Reddit and other deal forums around 2014‑2015. Enthusiasts would line up at stores, reload $1 at a time, and walk away with Gold status without ever ordering a single coffee. Because the program rewarded transaction count rather than total spend, anyone could game the rewards system for pennies.

In 2016 Starbucks overhauled its loyalty program, shifting from a transaction‑based points model to one based on dollars spent. The company acknowledged in a press release that customers had found ways to “optimize” the system unfairly, prompting a redesign that favored high‑spending patrons. While the change irked some loyal fans, it successfully closed the glaring loophole in the old framework.

8 The “10 Free CDs for a Penny” Columbia House Hack

During the 1990s, Columbia House and BMG ran aggressive mail‑order music clubs promising deals like “10 CDs for a penny” with only a vague pledge to buy more later. Teens and shrewd adults alike exploited the scheme by submitting multiple applications under fictitious names and addresses, taking advantage of the fact that no credit card was required—just a signature and mailing information.

Once the box of CDs arrived, the buyer could simply disappear. There were virtually no repercussions, and the companies kept sending fresh offers to those addresses. Some users opened dozens of accounts, using aliases such as “Joe Musicfan” or “CD Man,” and amassed hundreds of free albums over the years. The trick spread through dorm rooms, early internet forums, and sibling networks.

Although the companies attempted to tighten enforcement by adding tracking codes and internal blacklists, the damage was already done. Columbia House’s business model proved unsustainable in the long run. With digital music on the rise, CD clubs faded, but their demise was accelerated by a generation of music lovers who learned how to exploit the system for pennies.

7 The Domino’s Free Pizza Code That Wouldn’t Die

In 2018 Domino’s Russia launched a bizarre, seemingly harmless campaign: get a visible Domino’s logo tattoo, post a photo online, and receive free pizza for 100 years. The promotion went viral within hours, prompting hundreds of young Russians to rush to tattoo parlors to claim the deal. Domino’s expected only a handful of participants, but instead they were bombarded with entries—some people even getting elaborate full‑back designs to maximize visibility.

Photos flooded social media, tattoo shops reported lines out the door, and Domino’s PR team was quickly overwhelmed. Realizing the financial disaster unfolding, the company attempted to cancel the promotion within five days, limiting eligibility to the first 350 entrants and trying to quietly end the campaign. The damage, however, was already done.

Although the mishap was region‑specific, it made international headlines and forced Domino’s to rethink how viral promotions are planned. Future campaigns now include strict participation caps and clauses designed to prevent runaway redemptions, turning the incident into a classic example of good marketing gone wildly out of control when consumers over‑embrace a deal.

6 Unlimited Olive Garden Pasta Passes Scalped Online

In 2014 Olive Garden rolled out a “Never Ending Pasta Pass” for $100, granting cardholders unlimited pasta, breadsticks, and soft drinks for seven weeks. The promotion was meant to be light‑hearted—until superfans realized they could eat multiple meals a day and actually profit. Some diners spent upwards of $1,500 on food, while others resold the passes on eBay for hundreds of dollars above face value.
The media ran wild with stories of customers dining daily, calculating per‑meal value, and even timing orders to maximize carry‑out. Olive Garden hadn’t anticipated a secondary market or a competitive sport among extreme diners. One man reportedly ate at the chain over 100 times during the promotion.

In response, Olive Garden introduced stricter rules for future passes, including usage caps, a non‑transferability clause, and shorter eligibility windows. While the pass remains a beloved annual event for fans, the episode taught the company that even a buffet can become a competitive sport when loopholes exist.

5 The Frequent Flyer Scheme That Created a Yogurt Empire

In 1999 engineer David Phillips uncovered a Healthy Choice pudding promotion that awarded 500 frequent‑flyer miles for every ten barcodes mailed in. Recognizing that pudding cups were the cheapest qualifying product, Phillips bought 12,150 cups across California, racking up over 1.2 million airline miles for roughly $3,000 in spending.

To make the plan work, he enlisted local Salvation Army volunteers to remove and mail the UPCs in exchange for donating the pudding to food banks—a move that also earned him a tax deduction. The story went viral on airline forums and consumer‑hack blogs, turning Phillips into a folk hero. His scheme even earned a nod in the George Clooney film *Up in the Air*.

Although the promotion technically adhered to its own rules, it highlighted how well‑intentioned deals could be flipped by someone who understands cost‑to‑reward ratios. Healthy Choice never ran a miles‑based promotion again, and airlines grew more cautious about partnerships that could be gamed by sharp‑eyed bargain hunters.

4 The Costco Return Policy Exploited for Years

Costco built its reputation on an ultra‑generous return policy: members could return virtually anything at any time, with no questions asked. While this built trust, it also encouraged outrageous abuse. Members returned half‑used mattresses, decade‑old electronics, and even Christmas trees in January—claiming they “didn’t stay green long enough.”

One infamous case involved a woman returning a used, rotting fish months after purchase and demanding a refund—she got it. Another returned a TV after watching the Super Bowl, claiming it “didn’t meet expectations.” Costco employees confirmed that some customers returned items every month with barely any justification.

In 2007 Costco finally drew the line, imposing a 90‑day limit on electronics returns and gradually tightening rules on other categories. Today the policy remains generous but includes more exceptions and tracking for serial returners. It’s a rare example of a customer‑first philosophy being slightly scaled back—not because it failed, but because people turned kindness into a game.

3 The “Free Refill for Life” Soda Cup That Bankrupted the Idea

In the early 2000s chains like AMC Theatres and 7‑Eleven introduced souvenir cups offering free soda refills for life—a perk meant to boost brand loyalty and foot traffic. Customers paid $10‑$20 for a large plastic cup and could bring it back indefinitely for free drinks. It seemed like a win‑win—until patrons started bringing their cups in every single day, sometimes multiple times.

Enterprising individuals even resold “access” to the refill benefit. Craigslist and early eBay listings featured offers like, “Bring your own drink, I’ll fill it with my cup.” Others bought used cups online and tried to pass them off as their own. The economics quickly collapsed, especially as soda syrup prices rose.

By the early 2010s most major brands retired or sharply limited their lifetime‑refill programs. New versions introduced barcodes, tracking, and expiration dates. What began as a nostalgic, goodwill‑driven perk was ultimately undone by the relentless ingenuity of soda enthusiasts.

2 The Hotel Hack That Let Travelers Book Rooms at 90% Off

In the late 2000s and early 2010s a glitch involving promo‑code stacking and currency‑conversion bugs let savvy travelers snag luxury hotel rooms for absurdly low prices—sometimes just a few dollars per night. Orbitz, Expedia, and a handful of international booking sites were especially vulnerable when they launched new regional branches and offered introductory deals without verifying the stacking logic.

Forums like FlyerTalk and Slickdeals exploded with step‑by‑step instructions. One infamous method applied a 20% promo code, then switched currencies mid‑checkout to exploit favorable exchange rates, and finally added an additional discount code on top. Travelers were booking five‑star rooms in Paris, Tokyo, and New York for less than $10.

As bookings spiked, hotels and booking sites scrambled to cancel fraudulent reservations. Legal disclaimers were updated, promo codes became single‑use, and exchange‑rate tricks were patched out. The loophole bonanza lasted only weeks in some cases—but long enough for a wave of budget travelers to enjoy luxury stays on a shoestring budget.

1 The Guy Who Flew First Class for Free—Over and Over

In 1981 American Airlines unveiled the AAirpass, a lifetime, unlimited first‑class travel pass for a one‑time fee of $250,000 (about $1.5 million today). It seemed a dream deal for high‑rollers and frequent business travelers. One man, Steven Rothstein, bought the pass—and then added a companion seat for just $150,000 more. Over the next two decades he logged over 10,000 flights, often booking multi‑leg trips on a whim and canceling without notice.

Rothstein used the pass to fly to cities just for lunch or to watch baseball games, sometimes even abandoning flights halfway through. American Airlines claimed he cost them over $1 million per year in first‑class services. Another man, Michael Joyce, similarly abused the pass to conduct a form of “mileage arbitrage,” allowing friends and acquaintances to use his companion seat.

In 2008 American Airlines terminated the passes and sued both men, citing fraud and misuse. The AAirpass program was eventually discontinued altogether. Though originally designed as a loyalty reward, the pass turned into a ticking financial time bomb—proving that even high‑end consumers can find a way to game the system when given the right loophole.

Every year, the treasure chest of human history gets a fresh key, and 2016 was no exception. The 10 recent archaeological discoveries of that year have handed us new clues that dramatically reshape how we picture ancient societies, from early brewing to inter‑stellar weaponry.

10 Ancient Chinese Beer

For some time, scholars knew that early Chinese peoples enjoyed fermented drinks thanks to rice‑based residues unearthed at a 9,000‑year‑old site in Henan. Yet, the same year revealed that they were also adept brewers. Excavations in Shaanxi uncovered a set of brewing implements dated to roughly 3400–2900 BC.

This find marks the earliest direct evidence of on‑site beer production in China. Chemical analysis of the pottery residues identified a cocktail of broomcorn millet, lily, a grain called Job’s tears, and barley.

The detection of barley was especially startling, pushing its arrival in China back by about a millennium. It appears that ancient Chinese peoples were using barley for brewing centuries before they ever turned it into a staple food.

9 A Man And His Dog

Evidence from Blick Mead, a site near Stonehenge, suggests that humans and canines were partners as far back as 7,000 years ago. Archaeologist David Jacques recovered a dog tooth that originated from the region now known as the Vale of York.

The tooth indicates that the animal accompanied a Mesolithic hunter‑gatherer on a 400‑kilometre trek from York to Wiltshire, the longest documented journey in prehistoric Britain. Jacques argues the dog was fully domesticated, part of the human group, and likely served as a hunting aide.

Subsequent isotope analysis by Durham University confirmed the tooth’s origin, showing the dog drank water from the York area. Researchers also suggest the animal would have resembled a modern Alsatian with wolf‑like features.

8 King Tut’s Extraterrestrial Dagger

Mid‑2016 finally solved a puzzle that had haunted Egyptologists since Howard Carter opened Tutankhamun’s tomb in 1922. Among the pharaoh’s grave goods lay an iron dagger—an oddity because ironworking was virtually unknown in Egypt three millennia earlier, and the blade showed no rust.

Using X‑ray fluorescence spectroscopy, scientists discovered that the dagger’s metal originated from a meteorite. The unusually high levels of cobalt and nickel matched those found in known Red Sea meteorite fragments.

An earlier 2013 study had identified another Egyptian iron artifact as meteoritic, bolstering the idea that ancient texts referencing “iron of the sky” were literal. Researchers now suspect that additional items from Tutankhamun’s burial were also forged from celestial iron.

7 Greek Bureaucracy

The ancient city of Teos, located in present‑day Turkey, has yielded a trove of stone steles, one of which bears a remarkably intact 58‑line rental contract dating back roughly 2,200 years. This document proves that bureaucratic procedures were as entrenched in ancient Greece as they are today.

The agreement records a group of gymnasium students inheriting a parcel of land complete with buildings, an altar, and slaves, which they then leased at public auction. The contract also lists a guarantor—namely the renter’s father—and cites witnesses from the city administration.

Landowners retained the right to use the property three days each year and mandated annual inspections to ensure tenants did not cause damage. Half of the text details penalties for late payment or property harm, underscoring the sophisticated legal framework of the era.

6 Neanderthal STDs

When scientists first mapped the human genome, they were surprised to learn that roughly 4 percent of our DNA comes from Neanderthals, a legacy of interbreeding. Yet another inheritance emerged: an ancient strain of human papillomavirus (HPV) passed from Neanderthals to early modern humans.

By employing statistical modeling, researchers reconstructed the evolutionary pathway of HPV‑16. As Homo sapiens and Neanderthals diverged, the virus also split into distinct lineages.

The HPV‑16A strain was initially exclusive to Neanderthals and Denisovans, while early modern humans carried only the B, C, and D variants. When modern humans entered Europe and Asia and interbred with Neanderthals, they acquired the A strain as well.

Understanding this viral exchange may help explain why HPV‑16 causes cancer in some individuals but clears harmlessly in others, shedding light on the complex co‑evolution of humans and their pathogens.

5 Unearthing A Dead Language

Although the Etruscan tongue fell silent nearly two millennia ago, its influence on Latin—and consequently on many modern European languages—remains profound. Unfortunately, lengthy Etruscan texts are exceedingly rare.

In 2016, archaeologists uncovered a 1.2‑metre stone stele bearing an extensive Etruscan inscription while excavating a temple in Tuscany. The slab survived remarkably well because it had been repurposed as a foundation stone for the later structure.

Despite its preservation, the stele still shows chips and surface abrasion. Scholars plan to clean and conserve it thoroughly before attempting a full transcription, believing the text likely relates to religious rites and could illuminate previously obscure aspects of Etruscan worship.

4 The Elusive Higgs Bison

Researchers turned to ancient cave art to pinpoint a new bison species. By comparing paintings from Lascaux and Pergouset, they noted striking differences between depictions created 20,000 years ago and those rendered five millennia later, particularly in body shape and horn structure.

The earlier images resembled the steppe bison, whereas the later ones appeared to portray a distinct form. To verify this, scientists examined DNA from bison bones and teeth recovered across Europe, dating between 22,000 and 12,000 years ago.

The genetic analysis confirmed that the later representations belong to a separate species, now dubbed the Higgs bison, which descended from both the steppe bison and the aurochs. This discovery resolves a decade‑long confusion over anomalous sections in the steppe bison genome.

3 First Right‑Handed People

A 2016 study in the Journal of Human Evolution provides the earliest evidence of hand dominance in hominins, and it isn’t found in Homo sapiens. Paleoanthropologist David Frayer identified right‑handed tool use in Homo habilis specimens dating back 1.8 million years.

The team examined fossilized teeth for microscopic wear patterns that matched the motion of holding meat with the left hand while tearing flesh with the right hand using stone tools. Modern volunteers replicated the behavior, producing comparable scratches on protective mouth guards.

Although some scholars debate the methodology, the discovery that Homo habilis displayed a clear hand preference pushes the origins of lateralization far deeper into our evolutionary past, offering fresh insight into brain development.

2 Humanity’s New Mystery Ancestor

Excavations on Indonesia’s Sulawesi island have unearthed hundreds of stone tools that are at least 118,000 years old, predating the accepted arrival of modern humans on the island by roughly 60,000 years.

The presence of such antiquated tools suggests an as‑yet‑unidentified hominin once inhabited Sulawesi. The island sits near Flores, where the diminutive Homo floresiensis—nicknamed the “hobbits”—was discovered in 2003 and vanished around 50,000 years ago.

Possibilities include a new, distinct hominin species, a migration of Homo floresiensis to Sulawesi, or an earlier wave of Homo sapiens. Ongoing digs aim to locate fossil remains that could confirm which scenario is correct.

1 The Cannabis Road

Conventional wisdom has long placed ancient China at the forefront of early cannabis cultivation, dating back around 10,000 years. Yet a recent database compiled by the Free University of Berlin reveals that Eastern Europe and Japan exhibited comparable cannabis use during the same period.

While Chinese cannabis evidence appears sporadic until the Bronze Age, records across Western Eurasia show a steadier presence. Scholars propose that cannabis became a tradable commodity, spreading along routes akin to the Silk Road.

Supporting this hypothesis, the nomadic Yamnaya culture—identified through DNA studies as early Eurasian traders—may have acted as prehistoric “dope dealers,” ferrying cannabis and other crops such as wheat across vast distances.

Mysterious discoveries could rewrite history in ways we never imagined. Most of what we know comes from recorded accounts, yet those records are only a thin slice of the full story. Vast swaths of our past remain unetched, lost to time.

Mysterious Discoveries Could Change Our View of the Past

10 A Roman Sword In Canada

On Oak Island, Nova Scotia, a television crew accidentally unearthed something they never imagined: an ancient Roman blade that appears to date back to around AD 200. The very existence of the sword is startling—it hints that a Roman could have set foot in North America some 800 years before the Vikings made their famed voyages.

The sword isn’t the only oddity discovered on the island. Researchers have also reported a cross‑bow bolt lodged in a tree, a burial mound fashioned in a Roman style, Carthaginian coins, and even a stone bearing what looks like Roman script—all seemingly dating to roughly 1,800 years ago.

One prevailing hypothesis suggests a mixed party of Roman and Carthaginian explorers ventured westward about 1,800 years ago, never managed to return home, and buried their dead on Oak Island. This would explain the presence of Roman graves in Canada despite the absence of any Roman record of such a journey.

Because the sword was uncovered by a TV crew rather than professional archaeologists, skepticism is natural. Nonetheless, the sheer volume of evidence is intriguing. Should rigorous scientific testing validate these finds, the narrative of who first set foot in the Americas would be dramatically altered.

NOTE: According to a source (thanks to Fuzzybunny), the sword is believed to be a counterfeit.

9 Chinese Oracle Bone Writing In The United States

John Ruskamp argues that a Chinese expedition may have reached the Americas millennia before the Vikings. He catalogued strange symbols etched into stones at 82 sites across the southern United States, each bearing a consistent style that doesn’t match any known indigenous scripts.

Ruskamp is convinced these markings are not random doodles but deliberate messages rendered in oracle‑bone script—the ancient Chinese writing system that fell out of use around 1046 BC. If his interpretation holds, it would imply Chinese explorers arrived on North American shores roughly 3,000 years ago.

One particularly compelling example from Arizona appears to read: “Set apart (for) 10 years together; declaring (to) return, (the) journey completed, (to) the house of the Sun; (the) journey completed together.” This translation suggests a purposeful communication left by early travelers.

8 Ancient Ape Bones In Ireland

At Ireland’s Hill of Tara, a burial that seemed fit for royalty turned out to contain skeletal remains that closely resemble those of an ape rather than a human monarch. This unexpected find sparked curiosity among scholars.

The Hill of Tara isn’t the sole Irish site featuring primate remains; an ape skull discovered in County Armagh appears to have been interred roughly 2,300 years ago. The mystery deepens: why were apes being transported and buried in ancient Ireland?

One fringe theory links the ape burials to a legend of a powerful, magical group arriving on a massive ship and ruling from Tara. Some propose that the “magicians” were, in fact, technologically advanced Egyptians who introduced exotic fauna to the island.

Supporting this wild speculation, DNA analyses of ancient Irish remains have revealed genetic ties to the Middle East. Moreover, a 3,800‑year‑old boy’s skeleton found near Tara was adorned with a necklace that appears unmistakably Egyptian.

7 Native American Legends Of White Giants

In 1857, a Comanche elder addressed a crowd, recounting a tale of a race of towering white men—about 305 centimetres (10 feet) tall—who once dominated a vast region, driving indigenous peoples from their homes and wielding overwhelming power.

The story took on new intrigue when a Greek medallion and two ancient coins were unearthed in Oklahoma, prompting genealogist Donald Yates to investigate further. He discovered that this narrative wasn’t isolated; other tribes, such as the Choctaw, told similar accounts of white‑skinned giants inhabiting what is now Tennessee.

Even the ancient Greek geographer Strabo referenced a “Western Continent,” hinting that Greeks might have possessed some knowledge of lands across the Atlantic.

Yates posits that these oral traditions could preserve a grain of truth: perhaps Greek explorers did reach the Americas, clashed with native populations, and left a legacy that grew into legend over generations.

6 Mayan Murals Showing White‑Skinned Warriors

Inside Chichen Itza’s Temple of the Warriors, murals depict a chaotic battle featuring combatants of varied complexions—pale, black, and brown. The presence of white‑skinned figures in a pre‑Columbian setting raises eyebrows.

While some might dismiss the white warriors as artistic convention, other clues bolster the notion of cross‑cultural conflict. When Hernán Cortés arrived, he claimed the locals greeted him as a returning “white lord,” implying they remembered a previous white figure.

The Maya also recorded a tale called the “Dance of the Giants,” where a white giant allies with the Maya against a black giant besieging them. Some scholars argue the white giants could represent Viking visitors, while the black giants might symbolize the Aztecs moving northward.

Speculation about Viking contact dates back to 1789, when a sailor named Ari Marson, blown off course en route to Greenland, may have ended up in Mayan territory, leaving an imprint on local iconography.

5 A Temple To An Egyptian Goddess In India

On India’s western coastline stand the ruins of a temple dedicated to the goddess Pattini. While such a shrine isn’t unusual locally, rumors persist of a concealed chamber beneath the structure housing a sanctuary to the Egyptian deity Isis.

The site now belongs to a Hindu institution, limiting direct investigation of the alleged underground shrine. Writer Chris Morgan argues that an Egyptian traveler may have founded a cult for Isis, influencing local worship.

According to Morgan, the Pattini legend—centered on a woman whose husband meets a violent end—mirrors the myth of Isis, suggesting that the Indian goddess may be an adaptation of the Egyptian one, transmitted via that hidden shrine.

4 The Giant Village Of Peru

When Spanish conquistador Pedro Cieza de Leon arrived in Peru, he meticulously documented native cultures, the environment, and an astonishing legend: a village built by giants. He recorded a tale of colossal beings arriving in reed‑crafted vessels as large as ships.

According to the legend, these giants stood so tall that from the knee down they matched the full height of an ordinary human. They allegedly constructed wells far beyond native technology and erected massive settlements to accommodate their size.

Cieza de Leon claimed personal observation of the giant village and its oversized well, asserting that the structures were indeed large enough to fit the story’s description.

He also reported finding a gigantic skull and femur, and noted that fellow Spaniards observed teeth weighing roughly 0.2 kilograms (0.5 lb). These accounts suggest something extraordinary may have been witnessed.

The physical artifacts have since vanished, leaving scholars to wonder whether Cieza de Leon was deceived, fabricated the tale, or truly encountered evidence of a pre‑Spanish, non‑indigenous presence in Peru.

3 The Marcahuasi Ruins

High in the Andes lie the enigmatic Marcahuasi formations—rock outcrops that appear sculpted into human‑shaped heads, one of which bears an uncanny resemblance to a crude Egyptian Sphinx.

While some argue that natural erosion could produce these shapes, a faction of researchers maintains that an unknown civilization deliberately carved the stones, citing theories that range from alien artisans to mystic healers.

One particularly colorful hypothesis, offered by an archaeologist, claims the site was erected by a biblical group called the Masma, who journeyed to Peru and replicated Egyptian monuments they’d once seen. Notably, this theory stems from a dream rather than empirical evidence, yet it fuels ongoing debate about the ruins’ true origins.

2 The Three Handbags Of Heaven

A recurring motif appears across the globe: a trio of tiny handbag‑like symbols floating in the sky. The oldest known example comes from Turkey, where three such bags hover above a cosmic tableau.

Similar designs surface in artistic traditions from India, Egypt, and even Central America, suggesting the motif may trace back to an ancient Middle Eastern culture, potentially serving as a visual marker of early human migrations.

Intriguingly, the Maori of New Zealand also employ the three‑handbag image in myth, recounting a hero named Tane who ascended to Heaven to retrieve three baskets of knowledge—an image strikingly parallel to the Turkish carvings.

Whether this is mere coincidence or evidence of a shared heritage remains debated, but the widespread presence of the motif hints at a deep, perhaps pre‑historic, cultural diffusion.

1 The Red‑Headed Giants Of Lovelock Cave

In 1911, miners excavating guano in Nevada’s Lovelock Cave uncovered a trove of ancient artifacts, including the remarkably tall, red‑haired remains of a man measuring 198 centimetres (6 ft 6 in).

The cave quickly became an archaeological hotspot, yielding giant‑sized sandals measuring 38 centimetres (15 in) and an enormous handprint twice the size of a typical adult’s.

These findings seemed to corroborate Paiute legends of ferocious, red‑haired, freckle‑faced cannibals known as the Si‑Te‑Cahs, who allegedly arrived by boat, terrorized locals, and were eventually driven into a cavern and set ablaze.

Unfortunately, the original red‑haired mummy was destroyed, making definitive proof impossible. Nonetheless, eyewitness accounts persist, and some scholars argue the Si‑Te‑Cahs may have been actual European explorers who inflicted violence upon native peoples before meeting their demise in Nevada.

How Mysterious Discoveries Could Rewrite History

10 times governments have taken to the classroom to reshape the past, tweaking school textbooks so that generations grow up with a version of history that serves political ends. This phenomenon spans continents and decades, revealing how power can rewrite the narrative.

Why 10 Times Governments Rewrite History Through Textbooks

10 South Korea

In 2015 the South Korean National Institute of Korean History sparked a nationwide stir by overhauling the nation’s history textbooks. The revisions painted South Korea in a glowing light while casting Japan and North Korea in a starkly negative hue, especially intensifying criticism of North Korea’s guiding ideology of juche (“self‑reliance”).

Conservative voices, who championed the changes, warned that young South Koreans might come to admire juche despite North Korea’s heavy reliance on China for oil, food and other essentials. They also objected to existing textbooks that, in their view, blamed both North and South Korea for the Korean War even though the North initiated hostilities.

These conservatives further argued that the prevailing textbooks—believed to be authored by liberal scholars—frequently denigrated the military ruler Park Chung‑hee, who seized power in a 1961 coup. They claimed his achievements were downplayed while his regime’s crimes were highlighted, a point of irony given that Park’s daughter, Park Geun‑hye, was president when the textbook overhaul was proposed.

The conservative administration slated the new textbooks for rollout by March 2017, intending to outlaw all competing history books. However, after massive protests and accusations of state‑run brainwashing, the government retreated from the blanket ban.

9 Iraq

In 1973 Saddam Hussein ordered a sweeping rewrite of Iraqi school textbooks to glorify himself and the Ba’ath Party’s ideology. The new narratives claimed Hussein had rescued Arab lands from greedy Jews and portrayed the regime as a heroic defender of the region.

Later editions went further, falsely asserting that Iraq emerged victorious in both the 1980‑88 Iran‑Iraq War and the 1991 Gulf War against the United States—claims that starkly contradicted reality. These fabricated accounts raised alarm when the U.S.‑led coalition toppled Saddam’s regime in 2003.

Working closely with Iraqi educators, the U.S. government excised every mention of Saddam and the Ba’ath Party, stripping references to Iran, Kuwait, Jews, Kurds, Sunnis, Shias and the United States. The revised curriculum also softened the description of the 1991 Gulf conflict, rendering it “less controversial.”

8 India And Pakistan

Since their 1947 split from British rule, India and Pakistan have turned their rivalry into a classroom battlefield, each nation revising history textbooks to present a skewed version of shared events. The partition, which birthed the two states, is portrayed very differently on either side.

Pakistani textbooks assert that Muslim citizens broke away because Hindu leaders enslaved them after independence, whereas Indian textbooks claim the creation of Pakistan was a political maneuver, not a genuine demand. Both narratives paint the other side as the aggressor.

The textbooks also diverge on the massive communal violence that followed partition, which claimed 200,000‑500,000 lives. Pakistani books blame Hindu forces for the bloodshed; Indian texts suggest culpability on both sides.

When it comes to the 1965 war, each side boasts victory: Pakistani accounts declare that India begged for mercy and fled to the United Nations, while Indian narratives claim they nearly captured Lahore before the UN intervened. Later, during Bangladesh’s 1971 liberation, Pakistani books accuse India of meddling, whereas Indian textbooks portray Pakistan as the aggressor against Bangladesh’s freedom fighters.

7 Japan

Japan’s fraught ties with China and South Korea have fueled attempts to sanitize its wartime past. In 2017, a group called the “Society for the Dissemination of Historical Fact” helped the government strip junior‑high textbooks of references to the 300,000 Chinese victims of the 1937 Nanjing Massacre.

The revisions also erased mentions of the 400,000 Korean and Chinese women forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese military. Additionally, the new editions shifted blame for the Pearl Harbor attack onto the United States, arguing that American trade embargoes amounted to an unofficial declaration of war.

Critics argue the changes amount to a systematic white‑washing of Japan’s wartime atrocities. The society, already preparing a fourth edition at the time of the scandal, appears to be gradually excising controversial passages year after year.

Society director Hiromichi Moteki rejects accusations of historical tampering, insisting the textbooks are accurate and accusing neighboring nations of propagating falsehoods. He even claimed Japan “developed” Korea after the 1910 annexation and dismissed the Nanjing Massacre as “communist propaganda,” while denying the existence of “comfort women.”

6 China

In 1966 Chairman Mao launched the Cultural Revolution, proclaiming it a drive to realign China with pure communist ideals. In reality, it also served Mao’s personal bid to reclaim dominance within the Communist Party.

Over the next decade, Mao’s campaigns unleashed widespread protests, persecution and violence, ending only with his death in 1976. The episode remains a highly sensitive chapter in Chinese history, prompting the state to scrub references to it from official textbooks in 2018.

That year, an entire chapter on the Cultural Revolution vanished from the People’s Education Press‑issued textbook, replaced by a celebratory account of China’s development. All mentions of protests, mass arrests and state‑backed brutality were omitted, a change made easy by the government’s monopoly over textbook publishing.

5 Taiwan

In 2015 a wave of protests erupted across Taiwan after the administration attempted to rewrite high‑school history textbooks, a move many saw as part of a broader scheme to bring the island closer to mainland China.

The effort began in 2013 when a group of Taiwanese scholars received government approval to “fine‑tune” the island’s historical narrative. By February 2014 they announced revisions, promising to roll them out in schools by August 2015.

Among the changes, the Taiwan‑Zheng dynasty was relabeled as the “Chinese‑Taiwanese Ming Zheng dynasty,” implying continuity with the mainland’s Ming dynasty (1368‑1644). Historically, Taiwan never fell under Ming rule and only became part of China in 1683. Further edits altered the post‑1949 era under the Kuomintang, prompting high‑school students to protest and demand the abandonment of the project. A neutral professor warned that the revisions could rewrite roughly 60 % of Taiwan’s recorded past.

4 Afghanistan

In 2012 Afghanistan’s education ministry unveiled a new history curriculum that instantly erased four decades of the nation’s past, wiping out coverage of the communist era, the tumultuous coups of the 1970s and the 1979 Soviet invasion.

The overhaul also omitted details about the mujahideen’s anti‑Soviet resistance (later evolving into the Taliban), the brutal civil war among mujahideen factions after the Soviets left, and the subsequent U.S. invasion and occupation. Those events were reduced to a few terse lines.

Officials justified the edits as a means to unite a fractured society where tribal, clan and partisan loyalties often outweigh national identity. Critics, however, saw the changes as an attempt to curry favor with the Taliban and other armed groups. One commentator likened the effort to “hide the Sun with two fingers,” noting the removal of references to the U.S. occupation.

3 Turkey

In German schools that teach Turkish‑heritage students, the government‑approved textbook Türkçe ve Türk Kültürü (“Turkish and Turkish Culture”) sparked controversy in 2013. Critics argued the book reshaped history to favor Turkey, notably downplaying or omitting the 1915 Armenian genocide that claimed 1.5 million lives.

The text instead claimed that Armenians allied with the Allies—Russia, Britain and the United States—to dismantle the Ottoman Empire, and falsely asserted that Armenia voluntarily ceded its lands to Turkey after World War I.

Beyond historical distortion, the book was condemned for its overt nationalist tone, even featuring an oath urging students to “protect the young, honor the aged and love my country and motherland more than myself.” The publication was overseen by Turkey’s education ministry and distributed through its embassy.

2 Chile

In 2012 Chile’s education ministry stirred debate by revising history textbooks that covered General Augusto Pinochet’s rule. The new editions labeled his regime a “regime” rather than a “dictatorship.”

Left‑wing opposition parties claimed the linguistic shift was a deliberate effort to soften Pinochet’s legacy and placate the center‑right government that had benefitted from his tenure. Officials, however, maintained the change was simply a move toward less politically charged terminology.

1 Serbia

Slobodan Milošević ruled Serbia from 1989 until 1997 before becoming president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, a state distinct from the former Yugoslavia that fragmented in the early 1990s. Serbia and Montenegro later formed a union that dissolved in 2006.

During his tenure, Milošević oversaw four wars—in Bosnia, Croatia, Kosovo and Slovenia—and faced accusations of ethnic cleansing. Massive protests forced his ouster in October 2000.

Milošević personally directed revisions to Serbian school textbooks, filling them with propaganda that portrayed Serbia as a victim of foreign hatred. Ironically, after his fall, the new government excised every mention of Milošević from textbooks, even as the narratives still described events directly tied to his rule.

Modern Serbian textbooks now skirt around naming Milošević, describing “massive demonstrations in Belgrade on 5 October 2000” without specifying the target. State publishing director Radoslav Petrović explained that the past decade of history had been deliberately omitted, effectively erasing a turbulent chapter from official education.

Spanish flu, the deadliest pandemic of the 20th century, struck the world in a series of waves, and left between 50 and 100 million people dead in its wake. It may have appeared in the trenches of World War I in Europe as early as 1916, according to some researchers. It first appeared in the United States in the spring of 1918. Numerous contending theories of its source of origin continue to be debated. Some say it began in the United States, some say in Europe, and still others argue it originated in Asia. There is no debate over its impact, though, with one-third of the world’s population contracting the disease during its peak in 1918-19. It continued to appear well into 1920, though with significantly less impact.

Differing from other forms of influenza, the virus had a significant impact on young, otherwise healthy adults, who usually had stronger immune systems. It struck the wealthy and the poor. Franklin Delano Roosevelt contracted the illness. The King of Spain nearly died of it. A young nurse in Toronto, Amelia Earhart, contracted the disease, which damaged her sinuses to the point surgery was required. The scars left her with sinus problems for the rest of her life. In the United States, 675,000 Americans died from the flu, most of them during the deadly second wave in 1918. That year American average life expectancy dropped by 12 years as a result of the flu. Here are 10 facts about the Spanish flu pandemic at the end of the First World War…

10. Nobody knows for certain where it originated

While there is some disagreement among scholars over the place of origin, the consensus is that Spanish flu did not originate in Spain. When the pandemic spread rapidly across Europe in 1918, wartime censorship conditions affected most news reports. Censorship did not apply to neutral Spain. News reports of the flu’s virulence there appeared in newspapers and magazines, with references to “this Spanish flu.” The name stuck. Reports of the disease in Spain increased substantially when King Alphonso XIII contracted the flu in the spring of 1918. Ironically, as reports of the King’s illness and being near death for several days increased references to the Spanish flu in Western newspapers, the Spanish referred to the disease as the French flu.

Since the pandemic (and in part during it), China, Great Britain, the United States, and France, as well as Russia, have all been suggested as the disease’s starting point. The first case in the United States appeared in March 1918, at a Kansas army post. More recently, researchers identified potential cases as early as 1916, at army receiving and marshaling stations in France. Another earlier outbreak occurred at a British Army base in Aldershot in the early spring of 1917. The UK staging camp at Etapes, in northern France, saw 100,000 troops go through daily, either returning from the front or on their way to it, in densely crowded conditions. Hundreds exhibited symptoms of the pandemic flu during the spring and fall of 1917, a fact later identified by army pathologists.

9. More American soldiers died of Spanish flu than in combat during World War One

Americans were stunned at the casualties suffered by their troops during the First World War, though in comparison to the European combatants they were low. Mobilization placed 4.7 million American men in uniform. Of those, about 320,000 became ill and recovered, or suffered wounds in combat from which they survived. 116,516 American troops and sailors died during the war. Combat deaths totaled 53,402. The rest — 63,114 — died of disease, with most of the deaths occurring from the Spanish flu in the camps in the United States, in Europe, and in ships bound for Europe. Once such ship was a former German liner. In 1917 the United States converted the German steamship Vaterland, interned in New York, into a troopship, renamed USS Leviathan.

On September 29, 1918, Leviathan departed New York for the French port of Brest, carrying 9,000 American doughboys, and a crew of 2,000 sailors (one of the sailors was a young New Yorker named Humphrey Bogart). Spanish flu appeared in the ship during the crossing. When Leviathan arrived at Brest it carried 2,000 men already diagnosed with the Spanish flu, which wreaked havoc in the crowded conditions aboard, and overwhelmed the ship’s medical facilities and personnel. 80 men died during the crossing, many more after landing ashore in France, during the height of the pandemic. A similar outbreak occurred on the ship’s return voyage to the United States.

8. It affected the Treaty of Versailles

The combat during World War One came to an end via an armistice, which began at 11 a.m. on the 11th day of November, the 11th month of the year, 1918. Many issues of the war remained unresolved. The leaders of the Allied nations agreed to meet in Paris in early 1919 to discuss the issues facing Europe. Woodrow Wilson, then President of the United States, went to Europe to join the discussions, present his famous 14 Points, and to argue for the establishment of the League of Nations. He favored more lenient terms for Germany than those proposed by the leaders of France, Italy, and Great Britain. Wilson intended to use American prestige to obtain less punitive measures against the Germans, especially in the form of reparations.

During the negotiations for the treaty, which took place in Paris rather than the Palace of Versailles for which it was named, Wilson came down with the Spanish flu. Several members of his entourage suffered through the flu during the voyage to France. Wilson’s illness was covered up, though he became severely ill in Paris, unable to attend multiple sessions of the negotiations. His physician, Navy Admiral Cary Grayson, wrote of the President as “violently sick.” When Wilson did partially recover and returned to the negotiations, several participants wrote of his lack of attention, fatigue, and listlessness. He failed to ease the reparations imposed by the Allies on the Germans, and the resulting Treaty of Versailles created conditions in Germany that led to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the war which followed the War to End All Wars.

7. The federal government did little regarding the flu’s impact

In the United States, the federal government did relatively little to combat the Spanish flu, other than issue advisories telling Americans of the dangers presented by the illness. Congress adjourned in the fall of 1918, with the second wave of the pandemic at its peak. The Supreme Court did the same. The United States Public Health Service, then an agency within the Department of the Treasury, issued posters warning against spitting on sidewalks. It also advised workers to walk to work, which seems strange to modern eyes, until one considers that most commuting at the time involved streetcars or railroads. It also warned Americans to avoid becoming over-fatigued.

Before Woodrow Wilson went to Europe, Edith (the President’s wife) sent 1,000 roses to young women serving in the war effort in the District of Columbia, who were sickened by the flu. That was about the extent of the federal effort. Battling the effects of the pandemic, the lost work hours, burying the dead, and combating the spread of the disease was left in the hands of local governments, which responded in varying ways across the country. Some imposed severe restrictions on movement, crowds, and schools, easing them as the pandemic passed through their communities. Others continued to promote large gatherings to support Liberty Bond drives, including a parade in Philadelphia after which thousands died in the city from the rapid spread of influenza which ensued.

6. Some cities made wearing masks mandatory, with criminal penalties

The first wave of Spanish flu in America occurred in the spring of 1918. Compared to what came in the second wave it was mild. The second wave came in September 1918, in the Eastern cities, and gradually moved westward. San Francisco escaped the first wave, and its Chief of the Board of Health, Dr. William Hassler, assured citizens of the city the second wave would not affect them. On September 24, a recent arrival from Chicago became ill with the flu. By mid-October over 4,000 cases were in the city. That month the city passed an ordinance making the wearing of gauze masks mandatory, with Hassler touting them as 99% effective in stopping the spread of the flu between persons.

In truth, the masks were likely of little benefit, and on November 21, 1918,  the city rescinded the order to wear them. Several other cities issued similar orders, with varying degrees of punishments for violators. In San Francisco, violators went to jail. The city suffered 2,122 deaths during the lethal second wave. The third wave struck in December, and lasted through the winter, raising the death toll in San Francisco to over 3,500 out of a population of about half a million. Nearby Oakland was similarly hit. Oakland also enacted an ordinance requiring masks, virulently opposed by the city’s tobacco store owners. One such owner designed a mask with a flap over the mouth, allowing smokers to enjoy their cigars, cigarettes, and pipes while remaining in compliance with the law.

5. The 1918 baseball season was shortened, though not because of the flu

Major League Baseball shortened its season in 1918 in response to the American war effort. The last game of the regular season was played on September 2, 1918. Teams played just over 120 games that year. When the season ended, the second wave of Spanish flu was underway on the East coast. The league champions, the Boston Red Sox of the American League and the National League’s Chicago Cubs, met in the World Series. Public health officials in both cities argued against playing the World Series due to the crowds gathering during the course of an epidemic, but baseball went ahead. Boston’s only concession to the flu came in an agreement to play in Fenway Park, rather than in the larger Braves Field, where they had played in the preceding World Series.

During the World Series a young Red Sox pitcher started two games, winning both, despite suffering from the flu at the time. He started in the outfield in the other four games. His name was George Herman Ruth. Throughout the games he lay down between innings, weakened by the fever and body aches symptomatic of the flu. Some of his teammates assumed Ruth was simply suffering from a bad hangover, a common problem of ballplayers of the day. But throughout the series, Ruth was notably absent between games, even spending time on the train to Chicago in his sleeper, rather than consorting with teammates. The Red Sox won the series four games to two. It was the only World Series in history played entirely in September. That winter, Ruth was sent to the Yankees.

4. Franklin Roosevelt contracted the flu while returning from France

Franklin Delano Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in the Wilson Administration, and in that capacity went to Europe in 1918. His mission included the coordination of naval activities against the German U-boat threat, and arranging for convoying and port facilities used by US Navy ships. In September 1918 he returned to the United States aboard USS Leviathan. Upon arrival FDR was carried off the ship on a stretcher, having contracted the flu either in France or, what is more likely, aboard the ship. Leviathan’s crew had been exposed to and ravaged by the flu on several voyages. FDR returned to the United States deathly ill, and required several weeks convalescence at his family’s Hyde Park home before resuming his duties.

FDR’s illness and its severity are often overlooked, largely because of his being later stricken with polio, which left his legs paralyzed. His flu is often described as a mild illness, though he left Leviathan with double pneumonia, high fever, and debilitating weakness. His distant cousin, former President Teddy Roosevelt, who had encouraged him to go to Europe, wrote him during his convalescence. “We are deeply concerned about your sickness, and trust you will soon be well,” wrote the former President, adding that, “We are very proud of you.” Had FDR not survived the flu, which killed so many Americans who went to Europe in 1918, the remainder of the 20th century would have been very different indeed.

3. The flu’s second wave was its deadliest by far

The second wave of influenza in 1918 swept across Western Europe and the United States from September through the end of the year and into January. It was the deadliest of the three main waves of the pandemic. In Philadelphia, America’s hardest hit city, about 16,000 died after city leaders refused to cancel a parade scheduled to promote the sale of Liberty Bonds. Cincinnati closed schools and businesses, shut down streetcars, and ordered the wearing of masks. For a time it closed all restaurants, though it allowed saloons to remain open. At one point in November, believing the worst to have passed, the city reopened businesses and schools. Within days the death rate skyrocketed, forcing the city to shut down again. Over 1,700 Cincinnatians succumbed to the flu in the fall of 1918.

Sailors at the Great Lakes Naval Training Center brought the flu to Chicago. In September Chicago’s Health Commissioner announced the flu was under control. At the end of the month there were fewer than 300 cases reported in the city. By mid-October the city reported 1,200 new cases per day. Chicago shut down schools, businesses, banned public gatherings, closed parks, and requested for churches to curtail services. Chicago reported over 38,000 cases of influenza, and 13,000 cases of pneumonia attributed to the flu, before restrictions were lifted in mid-November. One restriction imposed, vigorously opposed by conservative newspapers and businesses, had been the banning of smoking on streetcars and elevated trains. The Chicago Tribune opposed the ban and referred to the Health Commissioner who imposed it as “his highness.”

2. Authorities in Philadelphia announced the flu was no worse than seasonal flu and held a parade to sell war bonds

In mid-September 1918, influenza was present in all the major Eastern cities of the United States, with Boston suffering the highest number of cases. Philadelphia had seen some cases of the flu, though health officials in the city regarded it lightly. The city’s Health Commissioner, Wilmer Krusen, a political appointee, ignored the pleas of doctors and public health experts to ban large public gatherings. Krusen announced the flu was no worse than any seasonal flu, despite the evidence presented by other cities. The Health Commissioner warned the people of Philadelphia to be careful, covering their faces when they coughed or sneezed, and allowed the city’s scheduled Liberty Bonds parade to take place on September 28, a patriotic spectacle attended by an estimated 200,000 people.

By the middle of November, over 12,000 Philadelphians had died of influenza. The city’s morgue, designed to hold 36 bodies, was obviously overwhelmed, and bodies were stored in the city wherever space was found. A streetcar manufacturing company was hired to build simple wooden boxes to serve as coffins. In the tenements, whole families were stricken and died, undiscovered for weeks. Only three days after the parade, every hospital bed in the city was filled. Over 500,000 cases of the highly contagious flu struck Philadelphia before the end of the year. The final death count was over 16,000. In contrast to Philadelphia, the city of Milwaukee, which imposed the most stringent social distancing laws in the nation, also saw the lowest death rate of any city in the United States.

1. A third of the world’s population contracted the flu during the pandemic

The 1918-20 influenza pandemic, the worst of the 20th century, caused at least 50 million deaths, and probably as many as 100 million across the globe. In remote Tahiti, 10% of the population died. In British ruled India more than 13 million citizens died, with some estimates ranging up to 17 million. German Samoa lost 22% of its population. American Samoa imposed a blockade, and escaped the pandemic unscathed. Brazil’s 300,000 dead included its President, Rodrigues Alves. In the United States over a quarter of the population contracted the flu during one of its several waves. Official death counts usually cite 675,000 American deaths, though some estimates include deaths on Indian Reservations and in Alaskan communities, and elevate the count to 850,000.

Bacterial pneumonia, a complication brought on by the flu, served as the primary killer. When the flu returned for its third wave in the late winter and early spring of 1919, rates of death were comparatively low. Sporadic outbreaks continued in the fall of 1919 and the winter of 1919-20. As the 1920s began the pandemic faded from memory, and remained largely forgotten until the coronavirus pandemic restored it to public attention. All the weapons used to control the spread of coronavirus — distancing, closing of schools, banning large crowds and gatherings, shutting down businesses, and others — were deployed against the Spanish flu. History shows that those communities which deployed them most stringently, throughout the first and second waves, were most successful saving lives.