Depending on which side you’re on, a rebellion can be seen as a struggle of the oppressed, trying to free themselves from (sometimes literal) bondage. Or it’s the highest form of treason, and the rebels are nothing but monsters who kill anyone who disagrees with them. Either way, here is a list of ten lesser-known rebellions.

10 The Helots’ Rebellion
464–462 BC

It’s not clear where the helots (ancient Spartan slaves) came from, but they were most likely ancient Laconians and Messenians. They were eventually subjugated by the Spartans and were kept as slaves since at least the eighth century BC. However, a massive earthquake hit in 464 BC and killed an extremely large number of Spartans. Seeing an opportunity, the helots rebelled, fighting against their masters for two years.

Eventually, the Spartans asked the Athenians for help, but they soon sent them home, fearing that the more democratically inclined Athenians might help free some of the helots. The rebellion was eventually crushed, and the helots were put under brutal restrictions until they were eventually freed—the Messenian helots in 370 BC and the Laconian helots in the second century BC.

9 The Red Eyebrow Rebellion
AD 17–27

In AD 17, floods had ravaged the provinces around China’s lower Yellow River, and many of the peasants began to form bandit groups in order to survive. Another reason for their rebellion was that many farmers had to become tenant farmers (people who have to pay to farm their own land) because they couldn’t pay back their creditors. Painting their faces with red war paint to resemble demons, they called themselves the Red Eyebrows and were quite successful in fighting off the forces sent by the Xin dynasty. (Ironically, Wang Mang, the ruling emperor, had usurped the throne from the Han dynasty.)

A large army was sent to defeat them, which it did at first, until the Red Eyebrows crushed them in AD 23. Declaring a 14-year-old boy of the Han dynasty as emperor, they actually had to fight another rebel group, the Greenwood Army, in order to capture the throne. Liu Xiu, a different member of the Han dynasty, declared himself emperor and was able to defeat the Red Eyebrows. In a rare act of benevolence, Xiu offered extremely gentle conditions for surrender, which were quickly accepted.

8 The Hogen Rebellion
1156

After the death of Japanese emperor Konoe in 1155, a power struggle erupted, mainly between the former emperor Sutoku and his half-brother, the newly-appointed Emperor Goshirakawa. Angered at his loss of power, Sutoku allied himself with some other political enemies of the emperor, and they marched their army on Kyoto. On July 28, 1156, Sutoku and his forces arrived in the city and decided to wait until the next morning to begin their attack.

However, Goshirakawa’s army decided to attack during the night, eventually repelling their enemy and forcing Sutoku to retreat. Many of the rebellion’s leaders were either killed in battle or executed shortly after, except for Sutoku, who was exiled. Many historians believe this was the first step in a series which culminated in the first samurai-led government in Japan’s history.

7 The Battle Of The Golden Spurs
1302

In 1302, the peasants of Flanders (in present-day Belgium) rebelled against the French forces occupying their lands. As a larger force traveled from France under the command of Count Robert II of Artois, they butchered any civilians they came across, women and children included, which further angered the Flemish people. When the battle began on July 11, it seemed as if the French would be victorious, as their army of over 10,000 men was going up against a poorly armed local militia of about 8,000.

However, the Flemish had prepared for this battle and had dug ditches and streams to hamper the movement of the French cavalry. Count Robert II led the infantry and would have won the battle had he not retreated to allow the cavalry to finish the job. When most of them were butchered by the Flemish, the count tried to repel their attack but was unsuccessful. He was later killed in the battle.

The battle gets its name because of the spurs which the Flemish took from the dead Frenchmen. It was also the first example of how infantry could easily defeat cavalry and set a precedent for future battles during the Middle Ages. In the end, the French would defeat Flanders in their war, allowing the county to remain independent but not without paying a substantial financial cost.

6 The Cornish Rebellion
1497

Near the end of the 15th century, poverty was rampant in Cornwall, especially among tin workers and other laborers. When Henry VII became king, he wished to fight the Scottish, who were terrorizing the border and amassing an army. In order to fund the potential war, he instituted a new tax, which was too much for the people of Cornwall. Led by Michael Joseph, a blacksmith, and Thomas Flamank, a lawyer, the Cornish people raised an army of 15,000 men and marched on London, remaining almost completely nonviolent. (They did kill a tax collector in Taunton.)

When they reached present-day Deptford, they were met by the king’s army. Outnumbered nearly two to one, the poorly trained Cornish army fought bravely, but the English army thoroughly defeated them, killing up to 2,000 men and capturing Joseph and Flamank. The two leaders were hanged, drawn, and quartered, and their heads were placed on pikes on London Bridge to serve as a warning. (Being hung first meant they were granted the “king’s mercy.”) As punishment, Henry VII imposed even harsher taxes on the Cornish as well as a series of fines.

5 The Morisco Revolt
1568–1571

Also known as the Rebellion of the Alpujarras, the Morisco Revolt was an uprising by the Moors of Spain. Angered by a series of laws restricting their faith, language, and clothing, the ex-Muslims of Granada rebelled. When it first began, the army was only 4,000-strong, but by 1570, over 25,000 soldiers fought against King Phillip II and his men, utilizing guerilla tactics against the Spanish forces.

The Moors were led by Aben Humeya, who was assassinated by his troops and replaced by Aben Aboo, who suffered the exact same fate. More than 20,000 men were sent to fight the Moriscos, and the former Muslims were eventually defeated in 1571. As many as 80,000 were expelled from Spain in 1609 by King Phillip III.

4 Bacon’s Rebellion
1676–1677

Fueled by dissent due to declining tobacco prices, a rising cost of living, and recent attacks by the Doeg and Susquehanaug tribes, Virginian settlers banded together to rebel against the governor, Sir William Berkeley. (The Susquehanaug were also attacked because the settlers thought they were behind earlier attacks, which were really perpetrated by the Doeg.)

Led by Nathaniel Bacon, the ragtag army looted loyalist properties and burned the capital building. The rebellion would have likely continued for some time had Bacon not mysteriously and suddenly died in October 1676, leaving behind a disorganized mess of rebels who continued fighting until the following year. Troops from England were eventually dispatched, but they didn’t arrive until after the rebellion was over.

3 Dos De Mayo Uprising
1808

On May 2, 1808, Napoleon’s army had been occupying Madrid since March and had tricked King Fernando VII into abdicating. He was replaced with Napoleon’s brother, Joseph. Madrid had 55,000 French soldiers stationed, and they were needed when the civilians rose up, thinking the French were going to kill the royal family. After a few hours of vicious urban fighting, the rebellion was crushed, mostly owing to the military superiority enjoyed by the French army.

Desperate to display complete control, Joaquim Murat, the French marshal, issued a decree stating that any person with a weapon would be shot. A number of other strict measures were enforced, leading to the execution of hundreds of prisoners. Due to the severity of the French response, Spain unified against their occupiers, driving the French out in the Peninsular War.

2 Pernambucan Revolt
1817

Fed up with Portuguese rule, the people of Brazil temporarily formed a country known as Pernambuco. Located in Northeastern Brazil, it was home to many low-wage workers, who struggled under the taxes imposed by the monarchy. They marched on the capital and even managed to take it over. They declared that they had founded an independent nation, going so far as to come up with their own flag.

However, the whole thing was crushed fairly quickly, and the leaders were executed. In total, the revolution only lasted 74 days. To try to prevent similar rebellions, the Portuguese cut the rebels’ heads and hands off and dragged their corpses to the cemetery with horses.

1 The Red River Rebellion
1869–1870

The Metis people of Canada’s Red River Colony were worried about their land rights when Canadian annexationist William McDougall was appointed as the territory’s first lieutenant governor. (They had already been at odds with the Hudson’s Bay Company, which had been running the colony.) When the government began doling out parcels of native Metis land, Louis Riel, a Metis himself, organized his people into a fighting force and fought against the Canadian government, seizing Fort Garry, outside of Winnipeg.

Riel fled before he could be captured. A treaty was drawn up, which created the province of Manitoba and was supposed to grant land to the Metis people. But it was mismanaged, and the Metis settled further west, where they again fought against the government in the North-West Rebellion, also led by Riel. This time, he was captured and executed.

While it’s true that we’re living in a far more peaceful era than most of our ancestors, the number of conflicts among states and non-state actors has only been increasing since the end of the Second World War. Much of that violence could be attributed to insurgencies and rebel groups fighting against trained, professional state armies, resulting in widespread violence and atrocities against civilian populations. 

10. Kashmir Insurgency

Since December 1989, India has been fighting a persistent insurgency in its northernmost Kashmir region. It’s a long-standing conflict that began with the kidnapping of the daughter of an Indian government official, and has been largely limited to the Kashmir region between India and Pakistan. 

The rebellion got triggered due to a number of factors, like political grievances against the Indian state and demands for self-determination by the local Kashmiri population. It’s also a geo-politically disputed region, with the entirety of it claimed by both the countries. 

While the insurgency has dialed down a lot compared to its most intense days during the 1990s, it’s still an ongoing conflict. Some reports suggest that currently, at least a dozen armed separatist groups are active in the region, compared to about 400,000 Indian troops stationed in the state. The rebellion has been marked by occasional-but-intense violence, particularly by Indian security forces against civilians. 

9. Al-Shabaab Insurgency

Al-Shabaab is an Islamic militant group active in Somalia. Since 2006, its members and other affiliated groups have been waging a bloody insurgency against Somalia’s government. It began after the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) – a body of local, clan-based Islamic courts in southern Somalia allied with al-Shabaab – was defeated and ousted by Ethiopian forces in late 2006. 

The group initially gained support by exploiting social grievances and clan rivalries within the country, along with the instability caused by the lack of a functioning central government. Since its beginning, the rebellion has attracted both local and foreign fighters, including members of the terrorist group called al-Qaeda. The conflict also involved the peacekeeping African Union Mission in Somalia – or AMISOM – sanctioned by the UN Security Council in 2007.

While AMISOM and Somali forces have managed to reclaim a few territories from al-Shabaab in recent years, the insurgency remains active and the group continues to carry out attacks across southern and central Somalia. 

8. FARC

The FARC insurgency, short for Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, is one of the longest-running rebellions in Latin America’s history. It began in 1964 with its foundation as a Marxist-Leninist guerrilla group seeking to overthrow the Colombian government, owing to factors like socioeconomic inequalities, land disputes, and widespread political exclusion of the workers in rural areas.

Over the years, the Colombian government, supported by the United States, has launched a series of military campaigns against the group, though it remains strong and active in many areas. The conflict has also involved a number of paramilitary groups associated with the Colombian right-wing. While the conflict was thought to be over with the signing of an official peace agreement in 2016, splinter groups continue to resist government forces in many areas of the country.  

7. OLA Insurgency

The OLA – or Oromo Liberation Army – insurgency in Ethiopia has been ongoing since at least 1974, when it mounted its first failed revolution against the Ethiopian government. Their stated aims were self-determination and independence for the Oromo people – the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia that has also traditionally faced marginalization at the hands of the Ethiopian government and military forces. 

While the group has been officially designated as a terrorist group by the state, much of the violence during the conflict has been perpetrated by Ethiopian security forces and allied militia groups. The rebellion has been marked by widespread violence, including attacks on government officials and infrastructure, and extra judicial violence against civilians suspected of aiding the rebels. Currently, the insurgency is limited to the regions of Ethiopia with a significant Oromo population.

6. Myanmar Rebellion

The insurgency and eventual civil war in Myanmar was triggered by the military coup that took place in February, 2021. It was carried out by the military junta that overthrew the democratically elected government of Myanmar and elected their own leader to the top office, namely Myint Swe. 

The insurgency has its roots in decades of struggle against state rule by local groups, along with the country’s tumultuous history since its independence from the British empire in 1948. The war has since involved a number of actors, including ethnic armed groups, student activists, civil society organizations, and other pro-democracy protesters from various walks of life.  

As of now, the insurgency is limited to certain regions of Myanmar where ethnic conflicts are already prevalent, with the military junta – or the Tatmadaw – in control of most of the country’s territory. 

5. Islamic State Insurgency In Afghanistan

ISIS showed up in the Khorasan region of Afghanistan in 2015, when a group of local militants pledged allegiance to the global Islamic State and began an insurgency against the government in Kabul. The group is mainly active in Afghanistan and Pakistan, but also operates in other regions of Central Asia. 

The rebels are mainly recruited from former Taliban cells dissatisfied with the Taliban leadership, or its peace negotiations with the Afghan government. It’s an ongoing insurgency, as Islamic State militants from the region continue to carry out sporadic attacks across Afghanistan and Pakistan. Despite active military operations by Afghan and Pakistani forces to neutralize the group, it remains a major threat to the stability of Afghanistan and the larger central and south Asian region.

4. Sudanese Civil War

The first Sudanese Civil War began in 1955, a few months before its independence from British colonial rule. Despite decolonization, the country remained divided on racial and ethnic lines, especially between the ruling Arab muslims from the north and the African Christians and other groups in the south and west. The conflict ultimately resulted in two separate civil wars spanning more than five decades.

Groups involved in the fighting include the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) and its political wing, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), along with several other smaller factions. While the violence had largely subsided with the conclusion of the second civil war in 2005, ethnic and political tensions remained. In April, 2023, fighting between rival factions of the military government resulted in another civil war that’s still ongoing, with casualty numbers increasing constantly as we speak. According to reports from June, 2023, more than 100,000 people have been displaced due to the current round of violence.

3. Kurdish Insurgency

The Kurdish insurgency in Turkey began in 1984, when the PKK – or the Kurdistan Workers’ Party – announced a popular uprising to oppose the Turkish state. The underlying causes include cultural and political discrimination against the Kurdish minority in Turkey, which had been ongoing for many decades before the start of the conflict. The PKK seeks to achieve self determination and greater autonomy for the traditional Kurdish regions through armed struggle, leading to the decades-long conflict against Turkish security forces. 

The insurgency has been fought by various groups over the years, including the PKK and its affiliates, as well as government forces and extremist paramilitary groups. According to some estimates, the conflict has so far claimed the lives of over 40,000 people, with no clear resolution in sight. Its current status is ongoing, with occasional flare-ups seen in southeastern Turkey in recent years. 

2. M23 Insurgency

The March 23 movement – also known as the M23 insurgency – began in Congo in April 2012, when former members of the Congolese army picked up arms and mutinied against the government. The primary issues were political and economic grievances, including corruption, marginalization of certain ethnic groups, and poor working conditions for soldiers. The group was initially led by Bosco Ntaganda – a former general who has since been indicted by the International Criminal Court for war crimes.

The insurgency has seen the involvement of many different parties, including the government and military forces of Rwanda and Uganda, who have been accused of providing support to the rebels by the UN. The group’s goal was to overthrow the Congolese government and establish a separate state in eastern Congo, though the conflict led to widespread violence and displacement of civilians in the entire region. While M23 declared a ceasefire in November 2013 and signed a peace agreement with the government, the conflict restarted in November, 2021, when M23 militants took over large parts of the North Kivu region and forced more than 800,000 people out of their homes. 

1. Houthi Rebellion

The Yemen Civil War, also called the Houthi Rebellion, began in 2014, when Houthi rebels took control of the country’s capital, Sanaa, and took over the government and military infrastructure. The conflict has its roots in long-standing issues, including political instability, economic hardship, and widespread discontent among the local population, especially the Houthi tribe. 

The situation has been further complicated by the presence of multiple actors, including Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, USA, and other armed groups. The rebels are backed by Iran, while Yemen’s government forces are supported by a coalition of countries led by Saudi Arabia. 

The insurgency and ensuing civil war has caused a major humanitarian crisis in the country. According to latest figures by the UN refugee agency, about four million people have been internally displaced by the conflict that has claimed the lives of close to 377,000 people since 2015.