When the Spanish arrived in Peru, they discovered the greatest Native American empire in history, stretching from the mountains of Ecuador to the deserts of Chile and the jungles of Brazil. But, alone among history’s great empires, the Inca had no written language. Instead, they administered the empire using bundles of knotted cords known as quipus. Long dismissed as mere mnemonic aids, it’s now becoming clear that the “talking knots” were a far stranger and more advanced technology than we ever suspected.

10They’re Incredibly Rare (But Still Respected)

The Spanish recognized that the quipu were more formidable and accurate than their own system of record-keeping. They also realized that they were extremely important to the prestige and history of the local people. They didn’t care for either fact and declared quipu satanic in 1583, burning every example they could find. At the time, quipu were extremely common, with every village in the empire using them. Today, only around 750 examples remain.

Despite their virtual eradication, many Andean people retained an enormous respect for quipu, although they lost the ability to truly read them over time. In the Peruvian village of San Cristobal de Rapaz, the locals carefully preserve a quipu in a ceremonial “quipu house” that must be approached with offerings and invocations. They regard the ancient record as a holy object that allows them to communicate with the nearby mountains, which allow the rain to come in their time of need.

9They Might Be Writing

Until recently, Western historians dismissed the quipu as numerical records, barely more advanced than abacuses. But early Spanish chroniclers frequently referred to the quipu as containing words as well.

The Jesuit missionary Jose de Acosta specifically recorded that the native Peruvians considered the quipu “authentic writing,” adding that “I saw a bundle of these strings on which a woman had brought a written confession of her whole life and used it to confess just as I would have done with words written on paper.” Others came across an old man who treasured a quipu recording “all [the Spanish] had done, both the good and the bad.” (Naturally, they seized and burned it.)

It took an unusual combination to overturn the consensus. Robert and Marcia Ascher were a married couple who also happened to be an archaeologist and a distinguished mathematician. In the 1980s, they teamed up to analyze the quipu and confirmed that at least a fifth of them had “non-arithmetical” elements.

This was huge, because if quipus are hiding a writing system, then it’s one like no other in the history of the world. For one thing, it’s three-dimensional. For another, the quipus don’t seem to represent sounds, so the Inca developed a notation system entirely separate from their spoken language, perhaps like computer binary (more on that later).

But before all of that, let’s get down to basics. How did the quipu work?

8They Used A Base-10 System

The most straightforward use of the quipu was to record numbers using clusters of knots. These are relatively easy to decipher, since the Inca used a base-10 positional number system much like the one we use today.

In our system, the symbol “5” can represent the number five or 50 or 5,000 depending on its position. In the number “555,” the digit 5 stands for the number five in the first column, the number 50 in the second column, and the number 500 in the third column. In this way, we can represent very large numbers using only 10 symbols (0 to 9).

The Inca had a similar system, in which the value of a cluster of knots changed depending on its position on the cord. So a tight cluster of three knots by itself represented the number three. But a cluster of three knots followed by a second cluster of three knots represented the number 33 (rather than simply adding up to 6). So the number 431 would be recorded on a quipu as four knots pressed together, followed by three knots clustered together, followed by a single knot at the end.

7They Understood Zero

All cultures have the concept of nothing, but the actual use of zero as a number was one of the most important breakthroughs in mathematics. The concept was considered so startling that in 1299, the Italian city of Florence banned Hindu-Arabic numerals such as zero entirely.

Most importantly, zero is used as a placeholder number. For example, in the number 2099, the zero indicates that there is a “hundreds” column, but that it has no value. Without zero, writing the number 2099 would require all sorts of convoluted symbols. We couldn’t write the number 20 at all, except by giving it a symbol of its own or writing “19 plus 1.”

The Romans lacked zero and consequently had to use a complicated system with symbols for 10, 50, 100, and so on. So in Roman numerals, 70 was written as LXX (50 plus 10 plus 10). The number 1939 had to be written as the deranged MCMXXXIX, which works out to 1,000 plus [1,000 minus 100] plus 10 plus 10 plus 10 plus [10 minus 1]. This made basic math ridiculously hard—-compare teaching a child to add LXXXI to XL to teaching 40 plus 81.

Inca math was advanced enough to include placeholder zero, which they represented as a space with no knots. So 209 would be indicated by two knots, followed by a space (0), followed by a clump of nine knots. This meant that the knots had to be exactly spaced so that it was easy to see when a space stood for zero.

6They Had Multiple Levels

In fact, the knots in a quipu were so perfectly spaced that the half-Inca chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega made them sound something like a spreadsheet: “According to their position, the knots signified units, tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands and, exceptionally, hundred thousands, and they were all as well aligned on their different cords as the figures that an accountant sets down, column by column, in his ledger.”

Quipus also had multiple levels. The basic design of a quipu was a thick horizontal rope with smaller strings hanging from it. These are known as pendant cords. However, some cords were attached on the opposite side of the central rope. These are known as top cords and often seem to contain the sum totals of the numbers being collected on the pendant cords below. Top cords and pendant cords can be seen clearly in the image above.

Additionally, smaller strings could be tied to top cords and pendant cords. These are known as subsidiary cords and contained supplementary information to the main cord. If you scroll back up to the previous entry, you can see subsidiary cords in the top right of the image. Between pendant cords, top cords, and subsidiary cords, quipus were extremely complicated devices. And we’re only just getting started.

5Color And Space

Color also helped to give the quipu meaning. According to the half-Inca Garcilaso de la Vega in 1609, quipu knots were “tied in several cords of different thicknesses and colors, each one of which had a special significance. Thus, gold was represented by a gold cord, silver by a white one, and fighting men by a red cord.”

Space was also used, with groups of cords representing a particular location or category. In the image above, you can clearly see that the pendant cords are separated into groups with spaces in between them. If the Inca wanted to know how many weapons their army had, then each group of cords might represent a regiment, with a different color of cord for every type of weapon.

Or let’s say the Inca wanted to know how many animals had been born in a village that year. Each group of cords would represent the animals owned by one particular family. Red cords would represent llamas, green cords alpacas, and brown cords guinea pigs. The knots on each cord would be the number of animals born that year. If there was no red cord in a group, it would mean that family didn’t own llamas. If there was a red cord, but it had no knots, it would mean the family had llamas, but they didn’t give birth that year.

4They Did Contain Words

Think back to the examples from the last entry. We have seen how the quipu could be used to record complex numerical information, but surely it’s not much use to record that a regiment is low on javelins without recording the name of the regiment? Traditionally, it was assumed that the Inca simply had to remember that information, since the quipu could only record numbers. But it’s now all but certain that the quipu could record at least some non-numerical information.

As well as colors and space, the Inca used at least three different types of knots to encode data. A figure eight knot was used to indicate that it was the last digit in a number, a bit like a numerical full stop. In the 1950s, a treasure trove of preserved quipus was found at an Inca administrative center called Puruchuco. Some of the quipus clearly summarize the numbers found on other, larger quipus. It’s likely that these summary quipus were intended as reports to be sent to the Inca capital at Cuzco.

Interestingly, the summary quipus always start with a single cord containing three figure eight knots. Since figure eight knots indicate the last digit, three figure eights in a row don’t make sense as a number. Quipu researchers like Gary Urton now believe that the three knots represent the place name “Puruchuco.” This is the first non-numerical information decoded from quipus. It is likely that other such “zip codes” exist for locations throughout the empire, but they are likely less easy to detect than Puruchuco’s clearly non-numeric figure eight knots.

3They Might Be Binary

Quipus had other elements that probably helped give them meaning. Garcilaso de la Vega specifically mentions the thickness of the cords, but we don’t know exactly what that meant. Additionally, researchers have focused on the material used (cotton or wool) and the style of weaving the cords (two distinct patterns known as S-spun and Z-spun). These might be meaningless, but the distribution of S-spun and Z-spun cords does seem unusual enough that it might not be random.

Gary Urton, a leading quipu researcher, has suggested that the Inca used a binary code similar to modern computer binary. According to Urton, each quipu represents a series of seven binary choices (for example, cotton vs wool and S-spun thread vs Z-spun thread). Combined with color, Urton argues that this allows quipus to indicate up to 1,500 distinct arrays—-far more than Egyptian hieroglyphs—-and therefore contain lengthy narratives, much in the same way that computers can encode whole books in a series of zeroes and ones.

Urton is at pains to emphasize that the binary code is just a theory and it hasn’t gained wide acceptance among his peers. Notably, it’s not clear how the binary code reconciles with the decimal numbers we know are definitely recorded by the quipus.

2The Royal Quipu Theory

In 1996, an Italian historian named Clara Miccinelli claimed to have made an amazing discovery in the archives of her noble Neapolitan ancestors. A book written by 17th century Jesuits made several startling revelations about the conquest of Peru. Among other things, the book claimed that several “royal quipus” were actually written in a forgotten syllabic language.

According to the book, each thread on a royal quipu began with a knot or symbol indicating a particular deity. The thread then contained a number indicating a syllable in the god’s name. It specifically cites the god Pachacamac, saying that his symbol followed by one knot is the syllable “pa,” while two knots is the syllable “cha” and three knots would be “ca.” In this way, it would have been possible to write a short story or song across a full quipu.

Unfortunately, most mainstream historians suspect that the book is a forgery, since it makes several outlandish claims, including that Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca via some nefariously poisoned wine. It also uses the term “genocide” to describe the conquest, even though that word wasn’t invented until several hundred years later. Clara Miccinelli, who was known for somewhat eccentric scholarly interests, has largely refused to release her documents for careful study and testing, leaving the royal quipu theory unsubstantiated.

1They’re Completely Alien To Us

In days gone by, historians used to refer to the “paradox” that the Inca alone managed to build a giant empire without any form of writing to administer it. But it’s now clear that the quipu were more than up to the task. Whatever else they were, the quipu were a terrifyingly complex apparatus: pendant threads, top threads, subsidiary threads, knot styles, weaving style, cord thickness, color, spaces, and unknowable other factors combined to create a strange nexus of information which we may not even have the tools to understand.

The Inca were an empire built on textiles and the quipu were arguably their finest work. We know from the Puruchuco quipu that they contained at least a few words. But even if that was as far as it went, they were still incredible devices, allowing for complicated arithmetic and a system of record keeping that rivaled any in the world.

In 2007, a Wired Magazine profile praised Gary Urton as the first to treat the quipu as “advanced, alien technology.” Urton himself recounted a key trip he made to work with traditional Bolivian weavers: “For an expert weaver, fabric is a record of many choices, a dance of twists, turns, and pulls that leads to the final product. They would have seen a fabric—-be it cloth or knotted strings—-a bit like a chess master views a game in progress. Yes, they see a pattern of pieces on a board, but they also have a feel for the moves that led there.”

Peru is a beautiful and fascinating country with a rich culture and history, but how much do you know about it? If you’ve never been to Peru, odds are you know little about it, which is a shame.

The country has featured heavily in the news due to its ongoing political upheaval, but looking beyond those issues, you will find an amazing country with welcoming and generous people. Here are some of the more fascinating facts about Peru.

10 Facts About The Talking Knots Of Ancient Peru

10 Peru’s History Dates Back 6,000 Years

Typically, people think of North Africa as the location of civilizations dating back 6,000 years, but the South American continent has been home to humanity for 14,500+ years.^[1] There is evidence of civilization in what is now the Republic of Peru dating back to the 4th millennia B.C.

Human habitation is evident around the eighth millennium B.C., and between the 4th and 3rd millennia B.C., the Norte Chico civilization rose in north-central Peru. The first city was founded around 3500 at Hauraicanga. The habitation of large-scale settlements of communal construction lasted until around 1800 B.C., when the settlements were abandoned. The Norte Chico civilization is the oldest known civilization in the Americas.^[2]

While the civilization declined, the population of people did not. Over time, it developed into the Inca Empire, the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The Inca empire was eventually conquered by the Spanish in 1572 A.D., which served to integrate Spanish culture into the culture of the people who lived there.

The Peruvians who reside in the nation today extend one of the longest histories of civilization of any nation, as they can trace their heritage to 6,000 years in the past.^[3]

9 Peru Has Three Official Languages

Most countries operate on a single official language — the United States technically has none — but many operate with two. Canada functions under both English and French, and that’s not too uncommon. Still, for the Republic of Peru, there are three official languages.

Spanish is the dominant language in the nation, and it’s joined by Quechua and Aymara as the three official languages of Peru. About 80% of the population speaks Spanish, while Quechua is spoken by indigenous communities primarily living in the Peruvian Andes.

It is the most widely-spoken pre-Columbian language in the Americas with some eight to ten million speakers. The third language, Aymara, is spoken by more than one million Aymara people, who are found along the border regions of Peru, Bolivia, and Chile.^[4]

While those three languages are recognized officially by the government, an additional 13 ethnolinguistic groups’ languages are spoken relatively widely in Peru. These include Aguaruna, Ashaninka, and Shipibo, which are all spoken by less than 1% of the population. Most of the people who speak one of the indigenous languages also speak Spanish.^[5]

8 Peru Is The Home To The Alpaca

There’s a reason Peru and alpaca are commonly associated with one another — the nation hosts 75% of the world’s alpaca population. Alpacas are widely sought-after for their beautiful wool, and they’ve played a significant role in the region’s culture and economy for millennia.

The Incan culture treasured alpaca and used the animals for numerous purposes. Alpaca meat was widely consumed among the Inca people, and their wool was commonly used to make yarn and fabrics. Their bones, leather, fat, and excrement were used for everything from musical instruments and footwear to medicines and fertilizer.

For religious purposes, alpaca were often sacrificed to appease the gods, so their place in Incan culture was widespread and significant. The most important aspect of the alpaca was (and still is) its wool, which could be woven into various textiles of religious and social value. Giving someone a gift of cloth was highly regarded and indicative of social status.

In modern times, the alpaca continues to dominate the Peruvian landscape. Both types of alpaca, the Huacaya and Suri, are found throughout the nation. While alpaca have spread outside the borders of Peru, the vast majority can still be found in the South American country.^[6]

7 A Popular Dish In Peru Is Roasted Guinea Pig

If you mention a guinea pig to someone outside of Peru, odds are they will think of the cute and furry little critters common in pet stores. Say it to someone in Peru, and you might just be ordering Cuy, one of Peru’s most famous delicacies.

Yes, those cute and cuddly critters many grew up caring for are on the menu in Peru. The dish has been served on special occasions since the Inca civilization existed in the area. Cuy is often fried or roasted to be served alongside potatoes and salsa.

It has been described as tasting like chicken, but with a deeper, “fattier” flavor. It’s actually low in fat and high in protein, which is one of the reasons it’s been a part of Peruvian cuisine for centuries. Two of the most popular dishes involving the rodents are chactado and cuy al palo.^[7]

The dish is popular in Peru but can be found in other Andean nations, including Ecuador and Bolivia. Guinea pigs are bred specifically for food and are eaten after they are only a few months old. The head is served, and only the intestines are removed. Most of the animal is edible, and according to some foodies, it is delicious.^[8]

Would you try Cuy? Have you had it before? Let us know in the comments if you’re willing to try it and/or what you thought about the dish.

6 Thank Peru For The Potato

The first people in the world to cultivate the potato were the Native Americans who occupied what is now Peru as far back as 10,000 years ago.^[9] For thousands of years, South American indigenous people used the potato as a staple food crop, but it remained completely unknown to the rest of the world until the 16th century.

When the Spanish came to Peru in the 16th-century conquest that saw the destruction of the Inca empire, the potato found its way to Europe. European farmers were able to diversify the crop through selective breeding, which has since resulted in the creation of some 5,000 different types of potatoes.

Before the Europeans came to take the potato, the indigenous people of Peru, Bolivia, and Chile knew its importance. They incorporated it into many of their favorite dishes. These days, the potato is the fourth-largest food crop after corn, wheat, and rice.^[10]

In Peru, the potato continues to dominate many of the nation’s top culinary dishes. If you visit the country, be sure to try Tocosh, a fermented potato prepared for festive events. Another dish you may want to try is Papa a la Huancaína, an authentic salad dish featuring a spicy, creamy, and rich cheese sauce drizzled over boiled potatoes.^[11]

10 Crazy Ways Kids Grew Up In The Inca Empire

5 The Geography Of Peru Is Incredibly Diverse

Peru is found along the western coast of South America, and it features some of the most diverse geography in the world. Cotahuasi Canyon, the deepest canyon in the world, is found in Peru. Its depth is 11,560 feet (3,535 meters), making it almost twice as deep as the Grand Canyon.^[12]

Another beautiful feature found in Peru is the world’s highest sand dune. Cerro Blanco is located in the Sechura Desert, where it stands 3,860 feet (1,176 meters) from its base to its summit. It’s a common sight to see sandboarders make the exhausting hike up to the top before cruising down. And perhaps most striking is the beautiful rainbow mountain (pictured) found in the Cusco region.^[13]

Peru features a stretch of the Andean mountain ranges, which act to shelter the rest of the nation’s climate, offering extensive rainfall and monsoonal periods throughout the year. The country also features 1,500 miles (2,414 km) of coastline, consisting of a diverse climate.

The central and southern coastline is primarily a subtropical desert. The northern coast features a tropical dry climate, which can become so warm that it’s unbearable during the summer months. Much of the country is heavily forested, leaving large clusters of the population in urbanized areas that make up less than 10% of the nation’s land.

4 Peru Is The Birthplace Of Surfing

Surfing is widely associated with several coastal regions worldwide, including Hawaii, California, Australia, and many others, but it didn’t start there. Archaeological evidence suggests that the people of pre-Columbian Peru were surfing on reed watercraft as far back as 5,000 years ago.

Of course, this type of surfing was very different from the practice common today. The indigenous people of Peru spent most of their time using their watercraft for fishing. Still, it is believed that they also used them for recreation. In Peru, the Moche culture is known to have used the caballito de totora (little horse of totora) around 200 A.D. By the 16th-century, Inca surfing practices were described by Jesuit missionary José de Acosta, who wrote the following:

“It is true to see them go fishing in Callao de Lima, was for me a thing of great recreation, because there were many and each one in a balsilla caballero, or sitting stubbornly cutting the waves of the sea, which is rough where they fish, they looked like the Tritons, or Neptunes, who paint upon the water.”

Polynesian cultures are believed to have crafted the custom of standing atop a board or raft while catching waves, which they likely developed independently of Peru.^[14]

3 Peru Has A National Drink (Of Sorts)

Head to any restaurant in Peru, and you’re bound to find a bottle of Inca Kola, also known as “The Golden Kola,” worldwide. The drink was first created in Peru back in 1935 by a British immigrant named Joseph Robinson Lindley. It has gone on to become one of the most popular beverages in the nation.

Inca Kola can be found in some other South American nations, but it’s primarily found in Peru, where it’s co-owned by The Coca-Cola Company and the Lindley Family. Interestingly, the Coca-Cola Company owns the Inca kola trademark in every country except Peru, though it has not been incredibly successful outside of the country.

Most foreigners have described the drink as something close to bubblegum or cream soda. It’s something of an “acquired taste,” as it is incredibly sweet. The intense yellow color doesn’t help in international sales due to the obvious comparison to… another liquid. Regardless, it’s one of those things everyone should at least try when visiting Peru.

Inca Kola is widely associated with Peruvian patriotism, as the drink has become something of a national symbol for the country. It is enjoyed throughout the year at any meal and at all types of events. It is best served cold, and if you’re interested in trying it without going to Peru, it can be found on Amazon and other online retailers.^[15]

2 There’s A Reason Peruvian Ponchos Are So Highly Regarded (And Expensive)

While you might find something called a Peruvian Poncho in a store, it’s not the real thing unless it is made by the Andean people of Peru. You’ll know it’s the real deal if it lasts a lifetime and cost you an arm and a leg,^[16] which is warranted, given what goes into making them.

Peruvian ponchos are made from alpaca wool, and they take between 500 and 600 hours to make just one. The whole process can take as long as six months to spin, dye, and weave a single poncho. In Peru, a poncho is often given to someone when they become an adult, and it can (and will) last a lifetime if taken care of properly.

The Peruvian people have been weaving ponchos for thousands of years, making the practice one of the world’s oldest ongoing textile traditions. They were first found in Paracas, a pre-Inca culture in the region south of Lima. Ponchos were worn to indicate status during this time, as textiles denoted importance and wealth.^[17]

Peruvian Ponchos are highly regarded worldwide, as they hold their color, are resistant to dust and are non-flammable. Alpaca wool comes in 22 colors, though ponchos are often dyed with bright colors, making them striking and beautiful garments.

1 Machu Picchu

Photo credit: Henry Oliva

Peru is filled with fascinating pre-Columbian sites, but the one that draws the most attention worldwide is Machu Picchu. The 15th-century Inca citadel sits atop a 7,970 ft (2,430 meter) mountain ridge and boasts impressive ruins. The site wasn’t known to the world until it was brought to international attention in 1911 by American historian Hiram Bingham.

Machu Picchu is notable for its impressive architecture, which is in the classic Inca style, consisting of polished dry-stone walls. Machu Picchu features three primary structures, including the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. It was designated a Peruvian Historic Sanctuary in 1981, and two years later, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Several of the outlying buildings have been restored to their original appearance to better display them as they originally appeared. Only about 30% of the site was restored by 1976, though restoration efforts continue.^[18]

The site was likely constructed as an estate for the Inca Emperor Pachacuti around 1450 A.D. By the time of the Spanish conquest a century later, the site was abandoned. It remained known locally but unknown to the rest of the world for nearly 400 years and has since been declared one of the New Seven Wonders of the World. As many as 5,000 people visit the site every day.^[19][20]

Top 10 Lesser-Known Ancient Finds From Peru