For most people, Stonehenge stands as a symbol for the most ancient of civilizations, the work of humans who had barely emerged from their hunter-gatherer origins. Those people might well be surprised to know just how many mysterious buildings survive, in one form or another, from much earlier epochs—and in places few would even dare to look.

10White Temple Of Uruk
3200 BC

A long way from the quiet shires that house Stonehenge stands a building that is yet more ancient. Perched at the top of the oldest existing ziggurat, in what is modern-day Warka, Iraq, is the weather-worn White Temple. Less known than the complexes on the ziggurat at Ur, the White Temple is only 20 meters (60 ft) in length. The name, added in modern times, comes from its whitewashed, mud-brick walls, whose sides still stand sentinel over the sands of the long-gone Sumerian empire. What the original name for the temple was, no one knows, as the early history of the site is achingly difficult to piece together. Could this building have buried within it secrets relating to a truly ancient organized religion?

What makes the White Temple especially intriguing is its connections to Anu, the oldest god of the Sumerian pantheon (and one of the stars of the Epic of Gilgamesh). It is also fascinating for the treasures it may well have housed, including the Warka Vase. This 5,000-year-old artifact was once housed in the Iraqi National Museum in Baghdad, before being looted in April 2003. It was later returned in a dozen pieces, months later, a sad reflection of the fragile state of Iraq’s present and its ancient past.

9Tarxien Temples
3250 BC

The Tarxien Temples are set amid the built-up neighborhood of Paola, just half an hour from Valletta, the capital of Malta. Less well-known than the Ggantija Temples and nearby underground Hypogeum of Hal-Saflieni, these aboveground buildings are the most complex of all the ancient temple sites in Malta.

There are three temples at Tarxien, all different ages, with the oldest dating to 3250 BC. The mystery lies in the beliefs of the people who constructed them. Were they simply artistic structures, suggested by the intricate and beautiful animal carvings that can be seen there, or did they serve a Sun god? Perhaps they were a homage to an obese fertility goddess, whose corpulent figure crops up so often at the site.

The Tarxien temples were discovered accidentally by a farmer in 1913 and have since been carefully restored, though they are still open to the elements. A tent and flood protection have been proposed for the temples, but for the moment, they remain within view of the azure sky and the ever-staring Sun.

8Sechin Bajo Plaza
3500 BC

Everyone has heard of the legendary Inca Empire and their Machu Picchu citadel, but fewer know about the remains of Peruvian civilizations that are older—much older. Five thousand years before the Incas reached their peak in the 15th century, ancient groups in the New World were constructing Sechin Bajo. The site consists of a circular plaza 14 meters (45 ft) in diameter, 370 kilometers (230 mi) north of modern-day Lima.

Adobe friezes show a warrior holding a knife in one hand and what could be a head or a shield in the other. There are disputes over the age of the site, but carbon-dating techniques conducted by a German and Peruvian archaeological team in 2008 date the plaza to 3500 BC, making it the oldest building complex in the Western hemisphere.

Things get even more mysterious with the mention by the team of older plazas that might be buried beneath the main site. That mystery will have to be for another day, however, as the archaeologists await further grants to delve deeper. In the meantime, scientists are filling in the site with dirt to preserve it and protect it from tomb raiders.

7West Kennet Long Barrow
3650 BC

Seven hundred years before Stonehenge was being prepared, West Kennet Long Barrow was already built, just 25 kilometers (15 mi) from the famous stone circle. A barrow is a place to hold the dead, traditionally the social elite, and this barrow is one of the best preserved in Britain. It dominates the nearby area, at over 100 meters (330 ft) long and 12–24 meters (40–80 ft) wide, and it is tall enough inside to let a person stand upright. Dating from 3650 BC, it was in use for almost 1,000 years, holding the bones of 50 people.

Speculation abounds as to why the barrow was abandoned. Was it simple neglect or something more cryptic? Did a change in belief lead to a change in burial practice and a blocking up of the old barrows? Could it be something to do with the arrival of the Avebury stone circle, built around the time of the Long Barrow’s demise, just 2 kilometers (1.2 mi) away?

6Knap Of Howar
3700 BC

The two stone structures that form the Knap of Howar may at first appear insignificant, but they are in fact 5,700 years old and are the oldest known stone houses in northern Europe. The walls of these houses still stand over 1.6 meters tall but were only uncovered in the 1930s, after severe sea erosion and gales blew their cover.

The houses can be found at the northern tip of Scotland’s Orkney Islands, an archipelago of over 70 islands, of which 20 are inhabited. Together with the more famous sites of Orkney, such as Skara Brae and the Ring of Brogar, the Knap is part of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site. The name of the site comes from Old Norse and means “mound of mounds.”

Several curious questions linger over these prehistoric houses. What is the significance of the pottery shards and stone and flint tools found throughout the houses? Was the Knap a workshop, whose tools were traded far beyond the islands? The houses had spacious living quarters, and there are indications of yet older structures beneath. Just how ancient and advanced was the civilization that made such homes this far north?

5Monte D’Accoddi
4000 BC

If most people were asked where they could find a truly ancient pyramid, few would mention the northwestern coast of Sardinia, in the Mediterranean. But it is here that you would find Monte d’Accoddi, a 6,000-year-old building whose true purpose is still the subject of debate. With its earliest foundations going back to 4000–3650 BC, this site not only predates Stonehenge but is also more ancient than the oldest pyramids of Egypt, which arrive on the scene over 1,000 years later.

Scholars translate the name as “Stone Mount,” and the building consists of a ramp over 40 meters (130 ft) long, leading to a step-pyramid that would have been 8 meters (25 ft) tall. Uniquely, the nearby area also houses both a 4.44-meter (14.6 ft) upright menhir and a limestone sphere with a circumference of almost 5 meters (15 ft). Lonely Planet describes the site as “unlike anything else in the Mediterranean,” and for such a phenomenal place, surprisingly few tourists venture here.

Monte d’Accoddi has been defined alternatively as an altar, a ziggurat, a temple, and a pyramid. Only adding to the mystery is the “red room” at the center of the site, whose walls are smeared with red ochre. Despite repeated studies, there is no clear answer as to just what happened on this mysterious mount.

4Tumulus Of Bougon
4700 BC

The Tumulus of Bougon ranks as one of the world’s few remaining structures that would have been regarded as ancient even back in the time of Stonehenge. A tumulus is an artificial mound, usually one built over a grave site. The site at Bougon, in the Deux-Sevres department of France near the Atlantic coast, consists of no fewer than six tumuli.

The biggest is 72 meters (240 ft) long, and the tumuli vary in size and shape; some are circular, others rectangular or trapezoidal. Were these shape choices simply based on aesthetic tastes, or is there a deeper significance, perhaps related to the builders’ beliefs in the afterlife?

Other mysteries surround these 7,000-year-old buildings. A skull of a man was found inside, and it bears truly ancient evidence of trepanning. To trepan a skull meant to perforate a hole in it, with the presumed aim of curing mental disorders. Did the man survive his affliction, or was he hastily buried at Bougon? We might now regard those who carried out this procedure as mad, but we can now see just how timeworn a cure it was.

3Cairn Of Barnenez
4800 BC

A faceless portrait—repeated and mysterious U shapes—frantic zig-zags. All of these symbols etched out on stone slabs, inside vaults that have stood for over 68 centuries. These are some of the secrets that are sepulchered inside the Cairn of Barnenez, in northern Finistere, in the Brittany region of France.

The Cairn of Barnenez is not the grave site of one man but houses 11 different tombs, added one by one over centuries, starting in 4800 BC. This is such an ancient monument that as big a chasm of years separates the builders of this cairn from the writers of the Old Testament as separates those biblical authors from the 21st century.

This is no small site either. The cairn is 75 meters (250 ft) long and 25 meters (80 ft) across at its widest. The estimated weight of the stones that make up the site is 12,000 tons, making the cairn the biggest megalithic mausoleum in Europe.

2Tower Of Jericho
9000 BC

The Tower of Jericho marries mystery with biblical fame, beauty with fear, grandeur with power. The origins of the 8.5-meter (28 ft) stone tower, a staggering 11,000 years old, justify the tower being described as the world’s oldest skyscraper.

The tower marks a milestone in the history of human progress, standing tall before most human tribes had settled down into sedentary communities. Constructing the tower marked one of the first achievements of what could be called the urban human, who for tens of thousands of years previously had roamed the land without a fixed home.

The mystery lies in the tower’s purpose. Almost every year that has passed since it was discovered 65 years ago has provided a new theory for its function. The ideas span everything from the tower being a time-keeping device to constituting a flood-defense, from being a symbol of wealth to being a defensive territorial marker. Even how it was constructed remains to be deciphered. As a part of the biblical city of Jericho, whose walls were so famously to fall, the tower’s future as a monumental marker in human history is assured.

1Tell Abu Hureyra
11,000 BC

The rectangular walls of the houses of Tell Abu Hureyra truly have an epic story to tell—one with a final twist.

The story begins at the dawn of human agriculture, a remarkable chapter in the tale of Homo sapiens. Some of the earliest cultivated cereals are found among the jaw-droppingly old remains of Tell Abu Hureyra, in what is now northern Syria. The village has been radiocarbon-dated as being a mind-blowing 13,000 years old.

This may have been the first foray into full-blown farming, according to research led by Professor Hillman of University College London. “As the wild grasses and seeds that the people relied on for food died out,” said Hillman, “they were forced to start cultivating the most easily grown of them to survive.” We will never know for sure what inspired these earliest farmers to be the first to launch the human race into its latest epoch.

But what of the final twist? These ancient structures were deliberately flooded and now keep their secrets deep beneath the waters of Lake Assad.

Philip tutors in an inner-city London school and is set to have a viral educational video channel on YouTube, if only he can get round to posting more videos.

When you think of old candy, what comes to mind? A bowl of stuck-together ribbon candies being ignored on your grandmother’s coffee table? Maybe you imagine Necco Wafers, Salted Nut Rolls, or rock-hard bars of Abba-Zaba—the kind of candy you still see at the drug store occasionally. It either fills you with delicious nostalgia or makes you wonder, “Who even eats these anymore?”

Maybe you think of bygone flavors like clove or inexplicable candies like Circus Peanuts. Or maybe you think of retro classics like candy cigarettes and buttons or wax lips and bottles.

This list is not about those candies. It is about confections and sweet treats that have been around for hundreds or even thousands of years. As these items are so old, their origin stories are varied or murky. Their ages also mean that these treats have assumed many names and forms in different cultures over time. One thing that remains constant, however, is human beings’ never-ending love affair with sweets.

10 Jordan Almonds

For many people, Jordan almonds are synonymous with weddings, where they have historically been given as favors everywhere from the US to Italy to the Middle East. The combination of bitter almond and sweet sugar is said to symbolize the bittersweet nature of both marriage and life itself.

Honey-coated almonds and seeds have been enjoyed by people as long ago as 177 BC in ancient Rome. In medieval times, when sugar became more readily available in Europe, confectioners began using it instead of honey to coat almonds.

The process for making Jordan almonds and similar sweets is called sugar panning.^[1] The almonds are tumbled in a pan while a sugar syrup is added. While the nuts tumble about, they become completely and evenly coated in the syrup, which crystallizes and hardens into a thin shell.

This method is thought to have been developed in northeastern France in the early 13th century. It is essentially the same way that modern treats such as M&M’S are made.

9 Marshmallows

According to some sources, marshmallows date back to 2000 BC in ancient Egypt. However, the ancient Egyptian version bore little to no resemblance to the marshmallows we know today.

Then, marshmallow was made from a type of mallow plant which grows in marshes. Egyptians would mix the sap (technically, a sap-like substance called mucilage) with nuts and honey to make a treat reserved for royalty. The mallow root continued to be used through the 1800s to make delicious sweets. It was also used medicinally, particularly to soothe coughing and sore throats, due to its anti-inflammatory effect on mucous membranes.

Gelatin (not sap from the mallow plant) is used to stabilize marshmallows today, though the name remains the same. As for the history of the s’more, one of the most popular uses for the marshmallow, it supposedly originated in the 1920s. A “recipe” for s’mores appeared in the 1927 Girl Scout Handbook. Today, marshmallows are most popular in the United States, perhaps due (at least in part) to their use in common treats such as s’mores and Rice Krispies treats.^[2]

8 Licorice

Similar to marshmallow, licorice comes from a root and has a long history of being used as medicine because of its anti-inflammatory effects. The first mention of licorice can be found over 2,600 years ago on some stone tablets from Baghdad, where the Assyrians used licorice to treat sore feet. Throughout history, licorice root has been used for its medicinal properties everywhere from China to the Netherlands to Egypt, where it was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamen.

The word “licorice” comes from the Greek word glycyrrhiza (“sweet root”). Licorice root contains a naturally sweet compound called glycyrrhizin, which is 50 times sweeter than table sugar. Nevertheless, some find its flavor off-putting, even when mixed with more sugar.

The practice of making licorice root into candy is said to have originated in 17th-century Holland, where it was made into candy ropes. To this day, more than one-fifth of all candy sold in the Netherlands is some kind of licorice.^[3]

7 Torrone

The Italian treat torrone, either a light-colored nougat or a caramel-colored brittle, both studded with nuts, is thought to have been around since medieval times. It’s easy to see how such a confection could date back so far due to its simple ingredients.

Traditionally, for the nougat version, egg whites and honey are whipped over a warm water bath for upward of seven hours before being flattened onto a work surface and cut into a log shape. The hard and brittle-like torrone is made simply with sugar, water, and nuts. Almonds are often the featured nut but far from the only one. The treat may also be enhanced by other flavors such as vanilla or citrus.

Some historians believe that torrone came about thanks to the Spanish turron, which was then introduced by Arabic immigrants to Spain. Others believe that it originated in ancient Greece or Rome. Its exact origins may be unknown, but as for present-day Italy and Spain, it’s nothing short of a Christmastime staple.^[4]

6 Lokum

Lokum is the name for the treat dubbed “Turkish delight” by the British. Though not quite as old as some of the other items on this list, lokum has been around for almost 300 years.

Lokum is made with sugar that is set into a gel by starch. Then it is cut into cubes or lumps and dusted with more starch, powdered sugar, or desiccated coconut.^[5] It may also contain nuts. Lokum is traditionally flavored with rosewater or orange blossom water, but it can be found in many other flavors such as lemon and mint. It is often eaten alongside Turkish coffee.

Lokum’s culinary “ancestor” is a sweet called kesme, which is made with boiled, thickened grape juice that is then cut into lumps. Though kesme is not as well-known now as Turkish delight, it is still made in many places in Turkey today, such as Diyarbakir, Kahramanmaras, and Kayseri.

5 Cotton Candy

The earliest-known instructions for making spun sugar (now referred to as cotton candy, candy floss, or fairy floss) appear in the 1769 book The Experienced English Housekeeper. It instructs aspiring experienced English housekeepers to:

Take a quarter of a pound of treble-refined sugar in one lump, and set it before a moderate fire on the middle of a silver salver or pewter plate. [ . . . ] Set it a little aslant, and when it begins to run like clear water to the edge of the plate or salver, have ready a tin cover or china bowl set on a still, with the mouth downward close to your sugar that it may not cool by carrying too far.

Then take a clean knife and take up as much of the syrup as the point will hold, and a fine thread will come from the point, which you must draw as quickly as possible backward and forward and also around the mold [and repeating this process] till your sugar is done or your web is thick enough.^[6]

This tricky process was made significantly easier with the invention of the first cotton candy machine, which was granted a US patent in 1899. Before that, spun sugar was used primarily for presentation of food rather than as a stand-alone treat. It was only with the invention of the machine that cotton candy became “fair food.”

4 Lavashak

Lavashak is the original fruit leather, a treat that could possibly date back to the days of the First Persian Empire. (Fruit leather has many names throughout the region; lavashak happens to be the Persian one.)

It makes sense that ancient peoples would make fruit into leather as it was both a method of preservation and a tasty preparation. Furthermore, fruit leather could be made from leftover ripe fruits that would otherwise go bad.^[7]

The basic preparation involves boiling down fruit and then spreading it into thin sheets to dry. Stone fruits—such as cherries, plums, apricots, and peaches—are often used, but they are far from the only choices.

Lavashak is probably not even best described as a “sweet” as often no sugar is added at all, highlighting the natural and often sour or tart flavors of the fruits used. Drying the leather in the sun is traditional. But in modern times, an oven may be used to speed along the process.

3 Halvah

There are many cultures which vie to take credit for this classic treat, as is often the case with anything well-known. Halvah has been dated by some historians to 3000 BC, while others say it more likely originated around the 12th century. Either way, this Middle Eastern confection has a long history. As halvah spread throughout the world, it took on different names and variations. Most commonly, it is a crumbly block of crushed and sweetened sesame seeds.^[8]

Halvah may have nuts added or be dipped or marbled with chocolate. It can come in various flavors. Some versions don’t even use sesame. This ancient candy was first popularized in the US in the 20th century thanks to a Jewish entrepreneur from the Ukraine named Nathan Radutzky. He founded a company called Joyva, now the leading manufacturer of halvah in the US. Halvah can be found in Jewish, Persian, and Greek markets in addition to well-stocked supermarkets.

2 Marzipan

Just like halvah, marzipan is claimed by several groups as their own invention. Perhaps the truth is that many different places on Earth, unknown to each other, stumbled upon this appealing mixture of ground almonds and sugar.

One origin story tells of Spanish nuns trapped in a convent in 1212, mixing their only ingredients—almond flour, sugar, and water—to subsist on during wartime. Marzipan is still eaten in Spain. It is customarily enjoyed at Christmastime and molded into traditional shapes such as that of an eel.^[9]

Marzipan enjoys popularity around the world to this day. It can be used as a filling for a number of sweets or may be molded into shapes and painted realistically to resemble miniature fruits, vegetables, and animals.

1 Amezaiku

When it comes to candy that can be shaped and sculpted, marzipan has nothing on amezaiku. Amezaiku is actually the name of a candy sculpting art form dating back to eighth-century Japan, inspired by Chinese techniques. A taffy-like substance called mizuame (“water candy”) is mounted on a stick and heated so that it becomes pliable. Amezaiku artists then use various tools to shape the candy, usually into animals.

Traditionally, artists sit on low stools and sculpt their creations in front of onlookers during festivals. But amezaiku is becoming rarer in Japan. Just a few passionate and talented artists, such as Takahiro Yoshihara and Shinri Tezuka, work to keep the art form alive. The resulting creations may be too beautiful to eat, but watching these artists at work is certainly a feast for the eyes.^[10]

Hannah lives in Seattle with her husband and dog. She enjoys writing and researching in her spare time.

The Giza Pyramids were constructed about 4,500 years ago. As breathtaking as these monuments are, they are not the oldest. Other archaeological sites are far more ancient than the Giza complex. This list looks at the most intriguing candidates known for their uniqueness or historical importance, including the largest human-made landscape and how avocados led to the discovery of a massive, peculiar megalithic complex.

10 The Tel Tsaf Charcoal—7,000 Years Old

The remains of a prehistoric village still exist in Israel. Located in the Jordan Valley, something sets it apart from other settlements of the same age. That something was charcoal. Sure, it sounds boring, but when archaeologists tested the scorched stuff, they discovered that the wood was 7,000 years old. But there was more.

The wood belonged to olive and fig trees. This was rather surprising. The specimens were the result of fruit tree cultivation, proving that olive and fig horticulture flourished long before the pyramids.

The find provided the earliest example of this type of farming but also showed that the trees didn’t just provide food and firewood for the villagers. It made them rich. Most of the homes had silos that could store massive amounts of crops, more than each family could ever need for their own personal use. This strongly suggested that the village did long-distance trading with dried figs and olive oil.^[1]

9 The Janera Complex—7,000 Years Old

In 2022, developers wanted to plant avocado trees. They had their eye on a patch of land in Huelva, Spain. Before they could plant anything, however, a permit was required, which called for a land survey. As the surveyors discovered one stone after the other, it became clear that they were walking through a massive megalithic complex.

The La Torre-La Janera site, aged at roughly 7,000 years, contained over 500 standing stones, although many are still believed to be buried. The sheer number guaranteed its place among the biggest complexes in Europe, but one feature set Janera apart. It held the most diverse collection of different megalithic structures found anywhere in the Iberian Peninsula.

Most other sites consist only of dolmens or stone circles. But this complex contained a striking collection of dolmens, circles, mounds, enclosures, the said 500-plus standing stones, and cists (casket-like stone boxes).^[2]

8 The Vinor Roundel—7,000 Years Old

The oldest evidence of architecture in Europe is a mysterious group of earthworks called roundels. Hundreds dot the landscape across Central Europe, and as their name suggests, they are round structures. In the Czech Republic, the Vinor Roundel was discovered by construction diggers in the 1980s, but it wasn’t until 2022 that the ruins were fully excavated.

The structure is enigmatic, but researchers believe it might’ve been the handiwork of a Stone Age community that used the roundel as a meeting place 7,000 years ago. This particular building measured 180 feet (55 meters) in diameter and had three entrances. The people probably belonged to the Stroked Pottery culture. They were farmers and accomplished longhouse builders who flourished in the area between 4900 BC and 4400 BC.^[3]

7 The Arma Veirana Grave—10,000 Years Old

In 2017, researchers made a sad discovery. While digging in Italy’s Arma Veirana cave, they uncovered the grave of a baby girl. Despite the tragic circumstances, it piqued their interest. In Europe, such ancient infant graves are extremely rare. The baby, whom they affectionately called “Neve,” stood out for another reason. Her grave was 10,000 years old, making her the oldest female child discovered in Europe.

But Neve had one more surprise for the researchers. Her burial provided an answer to a simple but hexing question, “How did people carry their infants back then?” A fair guess was that people used animal skins or degradable fabrics to make baby slings, which could explain why none have survived to modern times. Neve was the first proof of this.

In 2022, a new study examined the shells surrounding her remains. Their position and her body posture strongly suggested that she’d been buried in a shell-decorated baby sling, probably the same one used by Neve’s parents to carry her around during her short life.^[4]

6 The Wurdi Youang Stones—11,000 Years Old

The Wurdi Youang stone arrangement is located west of Melbourne, Australia. This ancient place consists of 90 carefully arranged blocks of basalt, a feature that gives the site a distinct Stonehenge-like flavor. However, the Wurdi Youang stones are much smaller. The tallest ones are no higher than a person’s waist.

Although the true purpose of the arrangement remains unknown, researchers are confident that Aboriginal astronomers used the stones to track the movement of the sun and mark the solstices.

Stonehenge might be taller, but it’s not the oldest. In 2016, geologists and other experts studied the site and concluded that it could be as old as 11,000 years. If true, that will make Wurdi Youang the world’s first observatory.^[5]

5 The LSU Mounds—11,000 Years Old

If you blink, your brain might dismiss the LSU mounds as landscaping features. Especially because the pair can be found on the Louisiana State University campus—not where one would expect to find the earliest human-made structures in the Americas. But sure enough, these grassy, well-manicured peaks go back 11,000 years.

Well, at least one of them does. When researchers recently clambered up the 20-foot (6-meter) slopes, they extracted cores filled with ancient clay, ash, plants, and animal bones. These bits dated the so-called Mound B as the record breaker. Mound A was 7,500 years old.

The builders didn’t scrape the heaps together in one day. Research shows that indigenous people spent thousands of years building them up, constantly adding layers of clay and burning organic material on the mounds. Interestingly, about 6,000 years ago, when both mounds were completed, they also lined up with a bright star called Arcturus.^[6]

4 The Kimberley Gwion Gallery—12,000 Years Old

In Western Australia, there is a collection of rock art unique to the Kimberley region. Done in the Gwion style, the Aboriginal art shows human figures adorned with anklets, bracelets, and headdresses. When it was first discovered, the work was clearly ancient, but putting a date on the gallery wasn’t easy. For a while, experts tentatively tagged it at 17,000 years old.

In 2020, scientists noticed wasp nests in the area. They were old, but any art behind them was bound to be older. On the other hand, any art on top of the muddy constructions would be younger than the nests.

This time bracket gave researchers a way to box in the real date. They tested over 100 nests, and the results put the gallery at 12,000 years. While it’s younger than initially thought, the artwork remains about seven millennia older than the Giza pyramids.^[7]

3 The Powars II Quarry—13,000 Years Old

Located in the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming, the Powars II quarry isn’t a new discovery. Archaeologists briefly documented the site in the 1980s but failed to recognize its importance. But in recent years, another team returned and realized that Powars II was 13,000 years old. This made it the oldest red ochre quarry in the Americas.

The excavation uncovered mining tools, bones, weapons, and beads. This cache contained thousands of items that also flagged Powars II as one of the densest Paleoindian records in existence.

Interestingly, the quarry wasn’t a locals-only enterprise. Some of the artifacts also showed that people traveled from great distances away to pull the precious red pigment from the mountain. Experts believe that ochre found at other archaeological sites across the American mid-continent probably came from this quarry.^[8]

2 The East Kalimantan Grave—31,000 Years Old

In 2020, archaeologists found a skeleton in a Borneo limestone cave. The left foot was missing. Normally, an incomplete skeleton is enough to ruin a researcher’s day since critical information can be lost. However, in this case, the team was delighted.

Around 31,000 years ago, the person had their foot skillfully amputated, and they lived for almost a decade afterward. This was bizarre. The surgeons lived before the advent of agriculture and permanent settlements, two factors hailed by historians as the catalyst for complex medical advancements.

It’s already amazing that the skeleton could be the world’s oldest case of medical amputation. But how did these hunter-gatherers have the knowledge to recognize when to remove a limb for health reasons and the skill to provide pain relief during and after major surgery, avoid the veins and nerves, stem major bleeding, and prevent post-operative infection?^[9]

1 Messak Settafet—Prehistory

In 2011, researchers visited the Sahara desert to have another look at the Messak Settafet escarpment. Measuring 217 miles (350 kilometers) long and running, on average, 37 miles (60 kilometers) wide, the sandstone outcrop is not entirely natural.

The site contains ancient stone artifacts, but that’s not the surprising bit. The quality of the rock would’ve been a magnet for prehistoric toolmakers. What’s noteworthy, however, is the number of abandoned tools at Messak Settafet. The 2011 team discovered an average of 75 million artifacts per 0.38 square mile (1 square kilometer).

This carpet of tools is the result of hundreds of thousands of years of humans and earlier hominids carving pieces from the escarpment for weapons and tools, abandoning some along the way, and also making Messak Settafet the oldest human-made landscape on Earth.^[10]