The medieval mindset turned death into a strange theater of customs that would make modern sensibilities cringe. In this top 10 weird tour of how the Middle Ages handled dying, we explore everything from bustling graveyards to the eerie practice of testing corpses for blood. Strap in for a bizarre journey through the macabre habits that defined a whole era.

10 Living in Cemeteries

In medieval Europe, cemeteries were far from the silent, somber places we imagine today. They buzzed with everyday life: local elections, courtroom trials, sermons, and even theatrical performances took place among the tombstones. Even the less reputable trades, such as prostitution, found a foothold within the hallowed grounds.

Why This Is One of the Top 10 Weird Facts

Historian Philippe Aries notes that these burial grounds, being church property, escaped taxation and thus became prime real‑estate for merchants and small‑business owners seeking a tax‑free venue for commerce.

9 Cruentation: Bleeding Corpses as Legal Evidence

Cruentation was the chilling belief that a dead body would begin to bleed when its murderer laid a hand upon it, as if the corpse itself could scream for vengeance. This notion permeated medieval legal thinking and even found its way into literary works.

King James’s 1597 treatise *Daemonologie* captures the idea vividly: “In a secret murder, if the dead carcass be at any time thereafter handled by the murderer, it will gush out blood as if the blood were crying to heaven for revenge on the assassin.”

The practice carried real legal weight, serving as a courtroom test from Germanic tribes through the seventeenth century. It rested on the belief that a corpse retained a spark of life, granting it a supernatural ability to reveal its killer.

8 Ossuaries

Overcrowded churchyards forced medieval planners to get creative. To make room for new burials, they exhumed older skeletons and neatly stacked them in ossuaries, also called charnel houses.

These bone‑filled chambers soon transcended practicality. Artisans arranged skulls and femurs into intricate patterns, turning death into a decorative art form that could rival any cathedral fresco.

Beyond aesthetics, ossuaries carried a spiritual message. Displayed alongside the inscription “You are what we were— we are what you shall be,” they urged onlookers to contemplate their own mortality and repent before it was too late.

7 Revenants and Their Theological Problems

The notion that the dead could walk among the living was widespread in medieval folklore. Chroniclers such as William of Newburgh recorded tales of corpses rising from graves and haunting the living.

One vivid account from Melrose Abbey in Scotland describes monks being visited repeatedly by a deceased priest who “groaned and murmured in an alarming fashion.” These stories sparked intense debate among theologians.

Revenants presented a thorny theological dilemma: were they miraculous signs of divine intervention or demonic assaults? The prevailing view held that a demon‑possessed corpse could be neutralized by exorcism, returning the body to a lifeless state.

6 The Fear of Sudden Death

Unlike modern preferences for swift, painless endings, medieval society dreaded sudden death. A rapid demise was thought to be the fate of murderers, suicides, and sinners, marking them for eternal wandering.

People believed that an unexpected death prevented the soul from receiving the necessary last rites and confession, causing the spirit to linger among the living as a restless ghost.

To combat this, the *Ars Moriendi* (The Art of Dying) manuals offered guidance on achieving a “good death.” These treatises contrasted serene scenes of families praying with graphic depictions of sinners dying amid devils and monstrous beasts.

5 Danse Macabre

The “Dance of Death” was a popular artistic motif that depicted figures from every social stratum being led away by skeletal dancers, reminding viewers that death spares no one, regardless of rank or riches.

Surprisingly, the motif often carried a darkly comic edge. Some illustrations show nuns caught in illicit embraces, while physicians are portrayed examining vials of their own urine, challenged by mocking skeletons to cure their own demise.

One notable exception appears in the Danse Macabre of La Chaise‑Dieu (France, 15th century), where Death gently covers its face before carrying away a small child, perhaps out of a rare moment of compassion.

4 Transi Tombs

Transi tombs feature effigies of the deceased in a state of advanced decomposition, sometimes being devoured by grotesque creatures, toads, or serpents. The term “transi” refers to a body in the process of decaying yet still recognizably human.

Many of these monuments employ a two‑tiered design: the upper level shows the individual in peaceful prayer, while the lower tier displays the same figure in a morbid, rotting state, underscoring the fleeting nature of earthly glory.

The tomb of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany in Saint‑Denis (Paris, 16th century) exemplifies this practice. The lower effigies reveal detailed embalming stitches on their abdomens, highlighting the artist’s meticulous attention to the realities of death.

3 Frau Welt

Frau Welt statues, found adorning many German cathedrals, present a striking duality. From the front, they depict youthful, radiant figures embodying health and happiness; turn them around, and the back reveals rotting flesh, maggots, worms, snakes, and toads.

These unsettling sculptures serve as allegorical warnings: the allure of worldly beauty and abundance is fleeting, and beneath the surface lies moral decay and corruption.

2 Apparent Death

Medieval physicians relied on the absence of breath, movement, and sensation to declare death, yet they sometimes resorted to bizarre tests to confirm the finality. In the epic *La Chanson de Roland*, Charlemagne bites Roland’s toe hoping to rouse him.

Bernard de Gordon suggested louder calls, pulling hair, twisting fingers, and even pricking with a needle. If these failed, a small ball of wool placed near the mouth would reveal lingering breath by the movement of the fibers.

Such “apparent death” cases were rare, as bodies were typically kept at home for several days before burial, allowing ample time for any revival signs to emerge.

1 The Cult of Relics

The medieval cult of relics revolved around the veneration of whole saints’ bodies or their fragments, believed to possess potent healing powers.

This devotion peaked between the 11th and 13th centuries, drawing pilgrims from far‑flung regions eager to pray before these holy objects and seek intercession.

Relics were sometimes sewn into altar cloths, and many believed that the Eucharist could only be celebrated on an altar draped with such sacred fabric.

These practices underscored a profound belief that physical remnants of the holy could bridge the earthly and divine realms, offering comfort and miracles to the faithful.

Right now, the phrase Middle East is virtually synonymous with gigantic clusterf—k. But how did a cradle of tolerance, wisdom, and learning morph into a region infamous for bloodshed, mayhem, and chaos? To answer that, we’ll walk through the ten historic reasons that have shaped the area’s tragic trajectory.

10 The Sunni/Shia Split

In AD 632 the Islamic movement was on a roll: it had swept through Mecca, united the Arabian Peninsula, and left a fresh trail of conquered lands. Muhammad’s clan was strong, the divine mandate seemed clear, and the future looked dazzling.

Then the Prophet died without designating a successor, and everything went sideways. Because Muhammad never fathered a son, no clear heir emerged. Many followers argued that his father‑in‑law, Abu Bakr, should become the first caliph, while a smaller faction insisted that his cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib deserved the role of Imam. This seemingly modest disagreement sprouted the Sunni‑Shia schism that has haunted the region ever since – the divide between Sunnis (team Abu) and Shias (team Ali).

9 Centuries Of Disagreement

Initially the two camps managed to coexist. After three Sunni‑chosen caliphs, the community even appointed Ali as the fourth caliph, and harmony seemed possible.

Ali’s death, however, ushered in a turning point. When his son succeeded him, the Sunnis decided one Shia ruler was enough and deposed him. That act set in motion more than fourteen centuries of tension. The Shia built a hierarchy of imams descending from Ali, while the Sunnis upheld the caliphate model. At various moments the two systems cooperated, but the pendulum often swung the other way, leading to persecution: the Ottoman Empire executed 40,000 Shia in the 16th century, Mughal rulers burned Shia scholars, and British colonial forces hired Sunni militias to hunt Shia rebels in Iraq. These episodes sowed deep‑seated resentment that would eventually boil over.

8 Saudi Arabia’s Deal With The Devil

While the sectarian feud simmered, an 18th‑century reformer named Ibn Abd al‑Wahhab grew increasingly furious. At that time, Sunni Islam already prohibited many practices (such as idol worship) that Shia communities still observed. Wahhab argued for even stricter prohibitions, labeling violators as apostates—an accusation that, under his interpretation, justified killing.

Wahhabism caught fire across the Sunni world, and the House of Saud seized the moment. They forged an alliance: the Saud family backed Wahhabi preachers financially, while the clerics provided religious legitimacy to the nascent Saudi state. The partnership propelled the Saudis to power, but it also tied them to an ultraconservative ideology that would later backfire spectacularly.

7 Lines On Maps

For centuries the Sunni Ottoman Empire acted as the region’s glue, styling itself as the successor to the historic caliphate. Then World War I struck, and the empire vanished overnight.

The victorious Allied powers carved up Ottoman lands with a few hastily drawn lines, birthing modern states such as Syria, Iraq, and others. Unfortunately, these new borders forced together groups—Sunni, Shia, Kurds, Christians, Yazidis—who shared little history or common identity. In effect, the map created a series of miniature Yugoslavias, which survived only while prosperity reigned and external powers resisted stoking ethnic tensions.

6 Iran Gets The CIA Treatment

Amid these upheavals, Iran faced its own pivotal moment. In 1941 Allied forces deposed the pro‑Hitler shah, ushering a brief flirtation with democracy that reshaped internal dynamics.

The democratically elected Mohammad Mosaddegh, a secular Marxist‑leaning nationalist, nationalized the Anglo‑Persian Oil Company. Angered, the British turned to the United States, which orchestrated a 1953 coup (Operation Ajax) to oust Mosaddegh and reinstall the shah’s son. The new monarch proved just as corrupt, prompting Iranians to seek alternative revolutionary pathways, ultimately turning to hard‑line Shia clerics.

5 Saudi Arabia’s Internal Problems

Back home, the House of Saud found itself in a precarious bind. By the 1970s, Wahhabism had morphed into an ultra‑extreme brand of Islam, preaching anti‑Shia sentiment and glorifying jihad. These doctrines birthed hate preachers who spread venom across the region, laying ideological groundwork for groups like Al‑Qaeda.

Domestically, the royal family could not simply abandon Wahhabism; the clerics held enough sway to spark revolution if challenged. Consequently, the Saudis continued to fund and export Wahhabi ideology, pouring billions into campaigns across Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Bahrain. This slow, relentless drip of sectarian propaganda eroded trust between Sunnis and Shias, fostering widespread suspicion.

4 Iran Gets Its Revolution

January 7 1978 marked a watershed: the Iranian Revolution erupted, toppling the shah, installing Ayatollah Khomeini, and establishing a hard‑line Shia theocracy. The upheaval sent shockwaves through Sunni‑dominated Saudi Arabia, which entered full‑blown panic.

Khomeini condemned hereditary monarchy as un‑Islamic and claimed to represent all Muslims—directly challenging Saudi Arabia’s self‑styled guardianship of the Islamic world. In response, Saudi Arabia funneled even more money into Wahhabi preachers denouncing Shia Islam, while Iran began backing Shia movements to destabilize Saudi interests. This tit‑for‑tat intensified the sectarian rivalry and set the stage for future confrontations.

3 The Iraq Disaster

Throughout the Iran‑Saudi rivalry, Saddam Hussein acted as a wild‑card check. Both powers viewed his brutal regime as an existential threat, and his unpredictable temperament unintentionally kept a volatile balance in the region.

When the United States launched the 2003 invasion, Saddam was removed, eliminating the last restraining force. The ensuing power vacuum invited Iran and Saudi Arabia to scramble for influence. Saudi Arabia backed deposed Sunni factions, while Iran supported the newly formed Shia government, which retaliated violently against former Sunni rulers. In the chaos, Sunni jihadists such as Al‑Qaeda in Iraq (the precursor to ISIS) flourished.

2 Power Games

With Saddam gone and Iraq ablaze, Iran and Saudi Arabia amplified their power games across the Middle East. Both states supplied arms, finances, and propaganda to allied groups in Lebanon, Bahrain, and Yemen, turning sectarian identities into geopolitical tools.

Propaganda streamed through mosques, state‑run media, and outlets like PressTV, thrusting the Sunni‑Shia divide back into daily headlines. As new conflicts erupted, ordinary Muslims found it harder to stay neutral, mirroring how the Irish Troubles amplified Protestant‑Catholic tensions in the UK. The Arab Spring then added fuel, toppling dictators and igniting fresh wars, while Iran and Saudi Arabia vied for dominance over the emerging order.

1 Syria Goes To Hell

By 2011 the simmering sectarian rivalry boiled over. Two regional superpowers—Saudi Arabia and Iran—were ready to gamble everything in a deadly game of chicken.

Syria erupted into civil war. Saudi Arabia seized the moment to oust Bashar al‑Assad, the Iran‑friendly Shia dictator, while Iran fought to keep a Sunni‑controlled neighbor at bay. When Assad’s forces used chemical weapons and the West appeared indifferent, many Sunnis interpreted the episode as Western complicity with Shia Iran. Decades of Wahhabi preaching had primed them, and they flocked to extremist groups like ISIS, further destabilizing the region.

The outcome is a Middle East more fractured than ever—an intricate web of shifting alliances, ruthless power plays, and two heavyweight rivals exploiting an age‑old schism. Until a durable resolution emerges, the region is likely to remain deeply tangled.

The Middle Ages continue to captivate modern imaginations, from epic fantasy sagas to blockbuster films. Yet the popular picture of medieval magic often glosses over the bewildering complexity of actual medieval belief. Here are 10 surprising facts that reveal how magic truly lived, breathed, and was regulated in medieval Europe.

10 Belief Was Considered A Pagan Superstition

10 surprising facts: Belief Was Considered A Pagan Superstition

In the early Middle Ages, openly admitting to magical belief could land you in hot water. The influential late‑antique theologian St. Augustine argued that demons could not bestow genuine magical powers; at most, they could trick people into thinking they possessed such abilities. This skeptical stance filtered into most early medieval legal and theological writings.

A Carolingian capitulary addressing the newly conquered Saxony explicitly forbade the killing of a woman suspected of witchcraft, labeling the act a “pagan manner” offense punishable by death. Likewise, the 10th‑century text Canon Episcopi instructed priests to warn their flocks that the devil’s “phantasms” were mere falsehoods.

9 Sailors From A Realm Of Clouds Would Steal Crops

Even church condemnations didn’t halt popular belief in the extraordinary. Around the same time as the Saxon capitulary, Bishop Agobard of Lyons penned a treatise denouncing magic, yet he also recorded what people truly thought. He noted that weather mages were believed capable of conjuring storms, and, astonishingly, that sky‑bound sailors from a “realm of clouds” collaborated with these mages to pilfer crops.

While Agobard himself didn’t mention crop theft, later chronicler Gervise of Tillsbury repeated stories of aerial sailors, even recounting a tale of one who “drowns” in the earthly atmosphere centuries later. Scholars suggest the superior mirage—a atmospheric phenomenon that makes distant ships appear suspended in the sky—may have inspired these sky‑borne narratives.

8 Most Witchcraft Trials Involved A Single Defendant

While early medieval authorities were cautious about magic, philosophical shifts by the 14th century rendered it a punishable crime. Yet medieval witchcraft trials differed sharply from the later mass hysteria of the 16th and 17th centuries. Large‑scale prosecutions of unrelated individuals were exceptionally rare.

The overwhelming majority of cases centered on a lone accused, or at most a small, tightly knit group—often household members, servants linked to their masters, or political conspirators. One notable exception was Philip the Fair’s sweeping executions during the Templar suppression, which involved many individuals.

7 Religious Figures Practiced Magic As Well

The stereotypical image of a witch hunt always includes a priest or monk, but history shows that clergy sometimes dabbled in magic themselves—especially when rituals required scholarly knowledge and written texts. The monks of St. Augustine’s in Canterbury, for example, kept a library of thirty magic books containing instructions for summoning spirits.

Rural parish priests were occasionally summoned to perform rites that blended orthodox liturgy with magical elements. A 12th‑century English ritual aimed at boosting field fertility involved sprinkling earth with milk, honey, oil, herbs, and holy water, reciting biblical passages, and saying four Masses over the soil.

6 Not All Magic Was Serious

Medieval folk also enjoyed light‑hearted tricks akin to today’s Las Vegas shows and birthday‑party performances. A 14th‑century manuscript titled Secretum Philosophorum is essentially a compendium of amusements rather than lofty scientific treatises. It offers instructions for invisible ink pranks, objects that appear to move on their own, and escapology techniques for freeing oneself when hands are bound behind the back.

These playful experiments illustrate that medieval people appreciated entertainment that dazzled the senses, proving that not every magical practice was cloaked in gravitas or danger.

5 The Norse Were More Suspicious Of Male Magicians

Shifting our focus from Christian Europe to pre‑conversion Scandinavia, we find a gendered view of magic. While Norse men could wield runes or poetic charms—activities considered respectable—the practice of seiðr was deemed a woman’s domain. Men who engaged in seiðr were branded as unmanly and subject to ridicule.

Saga literature portrays male seiðr practitioners negatively, emphasizing their loss of masculinity. Yet the chief god Odin is explicitly linked to seiðr, though even he isn’t immune to mockery; Loki famously derides Odin for his use of this feminine magic. In contrast, women who practiced seiðr often received reverent treatment, such as Thorbjorg’s celebrated entrance in Eirik the Red’s saga, where every man felt compelled to greet her with utmost respect.

4 Late Medieval People Thought Magic Respectable Science

By the High and Late Middle Ages, pursuits like astrology had earned a place among respectable intellectual discourse. Prominent theologian Albertus Magnus, a leading natural philosopher, championed the belief that certain stones possessed curative powers and that astrology could genuinely predict future events.

Royal courts across Europe patronized astrologers and alchemists, often consulting them on critical political decisions. This patronage underscores how, in medieval eyes, magic could sit comfortably alongside emerging scientific thought.

3 Most Witchcraft Trials Were Carried Out By Secular Courts

Common lore assumes the Inquisition led the charge against witches, yet the bulk of medieval witchcraft prosecutions were administered by secular authorities. In England, for instance, records show that most trials were governmental, with accusations usually tied to other crimes such as murder or treason.

In 1258, Pope Alexander VI decreed that inquisitors should refrain from intervening in witchcraft cases unless clear heretical elements were present. Nonetheless, inquisitorial manuals—like those penned by Bernard Gui—continued to advise clergy on interrogating alleged sorcerers.

2 The 15th Century Started The Panic Around Witchcraft

The 15th century marked a turning point in witchcraft history, laying the groundwork for the massive hysteria that would erupt in the early modern era. Legal practice shifted from viewing magic as a tool for other crimes to focusing on the alleged demonic pact that supposedly underpinned all sorcery.

This period also birthed the now‑familiar notion of the witches’ Sabbath—a clandestine gathering where witches supposedly consorted with the devil. Sensationalist accounts of these Sabbaths spread rapidly, feeding public fascination and fear.

1 The Author Of The Malleus Maleficarum Was Unsuccessful In Convicting Witches

Perhaps the most infamous medieval treatise on witchcraft, the Malleus Maleficarum, emerged in the 1480s as a practical guide for conducting witch hunts and as a defense of its author, Heinrich Kramer. Kramer, a Dominican inquisitor operating in late‑15th‑century Germany, had previously attempted to prosecute alleged witches, only to provoke fierce local opposition.

Between 1482 and 1484, Kramer’s aggressive interrogation of women—particularly his invasive questioning about their sexual lives—met with resistance from local clergy. Although the pope backed his authority, Bishop Golser of Innsbruck eventually halted the trial, ordering the release of all suspects. Frustrated by this failure, Kramer composed the Malleus, inflating his successes and justifying his harsh methods.

+ Further Reading

For a deeper dive into the world of witches, warlocks, and the occult, explore these curated lists from our archives:

• 10 Ancient Books That Promise Supernatural Powers
• 10 Surprising Facts About Magic And Superstition In Ancient Rome
• 10 Folk Magic Traditions Of The Early Modern Era
• Top 10 Magical Societies

Jim Lyons is a student who is passionate about history, speculative fiction, and traditional music.

Under the iron grip of the medieval Church, sexual activity was monitored with a zeal that would make modern regulators blush. Yet, despite the heavy hand of doctrine, people still pursued pleasure. In this top 10 tantalizing rundown you’ll discover how medieval folk navigated desire, from tolerated brothels to secret birth‑control tricks.

Top 10 Tantalizing Overview

10 Prostitution Was Considered a Necessary Evil

Prostitution thrived in towns and cities throughout the Middle Ages. Although the clergy publicly condemned the trade, they largely turned a blind eye, recognizing that many men needed an outlet and that suppressing it could cause greater moral chaos. Officials feared that without regulated brothels, men might assault respectable women or, worse, turn to homosexual acts.

Even with this tacit acceptance, authorities imposed humiliating ordinances on the women involved. They were forced to wear distinctive clothing to set them apart from “respectable” ladies, confined to specific districts, and were denied any standing in a court of law. Brothels often masqueraded as bathhouses or craft workshops, where women could pose as “apprentices” to conceal their true occupation.

9 Impotence Was Grounds for Marriage Annulment

Across Europe, the law treated consummation as a vital component of a valid marriage. If a spouse could not or would not produce offspring, the partner could petition for an annulment. In some jurisdictions, a man accused of impotence had to prove his physical capability before a court, lest the marriage be declared void.

Historical records reveal dozens of such cases. One of the most famous involved King Philip II of France and his second wife, Ingeborg of Denmark, in 1198. Philip, who despised Ingeborg, oddly claimed the marriage was never consummated, pleading temporary impotence to avoid taking her as queen.

8 Women Used Contraceptives

Contrary to long‑standing scholarly belief, women in the Middle Ages did not abandon birth‑control entirely. While the Catholic Church condemned any interference with procreation, demographic studies show a noticeable decline in pregnancy rates among women over thirty, indicating the use of various contraceptive techniques.

Because written evidence was scarce—suppressed by the Church’s opposition—knowledge of these methods was passed down orally, often from midwife to midwife. Common practices included coitus interruptus and plant‑based remedies, such as pessaries crafted from lily root and rue, demonstrating a covert yet sophisticated approach to family planning.

7 The Church Thought Midwives Forced Women Into Sex With the Devil

The late medieval period saw an explosion of witch hunts, with tens of thousands—predominantly women—accused of sorcery. Among the many alleged crimes, midwifery fell under suspicion, as some demonologists claimed midwives lured young women into sexual encounters with the Devil and used unbaptized infants for dark rites.

Pope Innocent VIII’s 1484 papal bull Summis desiderantes affectibus endorsed the persecution of witches, and inquisitor Heinrich Kramer’s infamous Malleus Maleficarum singled out midwives as a particular threat. Modern scholarship, however, argues that the “midwives‑as‑witches” narrative is largely a myth, overstated by later historians such as Margaret Murray, with actual accusations being relatively rare.

6 Clergymen Could Sometimes Get Married

Marriage rules for clergy were a tangled web that shifted over centuries. In the early Byzantine era, Emperor Justinian annulled all holy‑order marriages and declared any offspring illegitimate, establishing a strict celibacy norm.

Nonetheless, enforcement was uneven. Some clerics were permitted to marry, and conversely, married men could enter holy orders—usually only if it was their first marriage and they pledged sexual continence thereafter. The Great Schism of 1054 prompted both the Eastern and Western Churches to tighten celibacy requirements, culminating in the First Lateran Council’s 1123 prohibition of clerical marriage.

These rules relaxed again during the Protestant Reformation, most famously when Martin Luther wed Katharina von Bora, illustrating that clerical marriage was not an absolute taboo but rather a fluctuating doctrine.

5 Lesbianism Was Considered a Medical Problem

While medieval discourse on homosexuality largely focused on men, a handful of legal texts did address female same‑sex relations. The mid‑13th‑century French treatise Li Livres de jostice et de plet prescribed punishments for lesbian acts that mirrored those for male sodomy: mutilation for the first two offenses and burning for the third.

Physicians of the era classified lesbianism as a medical ailment. Drawing on Galen, they argued that a “seed” could accumulate in a woman’s womb if she did not engage in heterosexual intercourse, recommending orgasmic release—often induced by a midwife using a heated poultice—as treatment. Another supposed condition, “ragadia of the womb,” claimed women could develop penis‑like growths, prompting desire for other women.

4 They Used Sex Toys

Sexual implements predate the Middle Ages by tens of millennia, with archaeological finds ranging from stone phalli to ivory dildos. Ancient civilizations such as Egypt and Greece fashioned toys from a variety of materials, including leather and animal hair, often lubricated with olive oil.

In medieval Europe, the most common dildo was a hardened loaf of bread—a practice also noted among the Greeks. These “bread toys” were crafted in secret to avoid ecclesiastical censure, as the Church condemned any pleasure‑focused sexual activity. The resulting devices were likely uncomfortable, but they reveal a persistent human ingenuity in seeking sexual satisfaction.

3 There Was Cross‑Dressing

Cross‑dressing was far from unheard of in medieval England, though society condemned it. An Oxford study uncovered thirteen women cited for wearing men’s clothing in the 15th century, and records suggest male cross‑dressers were equally, if not more, prevalent.

Most of those who swapped attire were prostitutes who adopted the opposite gender’s dress to fulfill personal or client desires. Authorities downplayed the phenomenon, labeling it a foreign vice, yet the documented cases prove that gender‑bending did occur, albeit clandestinely.

2 Missionary Was the Preferred Position

The medieval Church framed sex primarily as a procreative act, which cemented the missionary position—man on top, face‑to‑face—as the ideal. This posture was thought to maximize the chance of conception, while alternative positions, such as “sex a tergo” (from behind), were denounced as “beastly” and believed to blur the natural order.

Oral and anal intercourse were strictly forbidden, as they offered no reproductive benefit and were deemed purely pleasure‑driven sins. Nonetheless, some clerics began to adopt a more nuanced view.

In the 13th century, German friar Albertus Magnus ranked five positions by “naturalness”: missionary first, followed by side‑by‑side, seated, standing, and finally a tergo. While missionary remained the top choice, he deemed the others morally questionable yet not mortal sins, indicating a subtle shift in ecclesiastical attitudes.

1 There Were Punishments for Every Sexual Sin

To standardize penance, the medieval Church produced “penitentials”—manuals that listed specific punishments for each confessed sin. These texts emerged as priests recorded the confessions they heard and the corresponding penances they assigned.

Sex‑related transgressions featured prominently. The influential Paenitentiale Theodori, authored by Archbishop Theodore of Tarsus, detailed a range of penalties: men who engaged in sodomy with other men or animals faced ten years of penance, while women who practiced lesbianism received three years. Masturbation required men to abstain from meat for four days, whereas women endured a full year of repentance.

The most severe sanction was reserved for the act of ejaculating seed into the mouth, deemed the “worst evil,” demanding lifelong penance. These meticulous regulations underscore how deeply the Church sought to control even the most intimate aspects of medieval life.

Explore 60 stunning images that reveal the Middle East’s breathtaking scenery, vibrant culture, and architectural marvels—far beyond the headlines of conflict.

15 Bahrain

Bahrain, the tiniest of the Arabian states, struck oil in the 1930s and is even rumored to be the site of the Garden of Eden. Women earned voting rights in 2002, and its constitution guarantees religious freedom. Homosexuality was decriminalised in 1976 for those over 21. The striking twin‑peaked Bahrain World Trade Center dominates the skyline.

14 Egypt

Egypt, cradle of an ancient civilization adored by the West, is now a modern democracy founded in the 1950s. Beyond the iconic pyramids, the nation boasts a rich tapestry of history and culture. Modern Egyptians trace much of their ancestry to post‑Islamic settlers from the 7th century, while ancient DNA links them to Neolithic Levantine and Anatolian peoples.

13 Iran

Iran, formerly Persia, translates to “land of the Aryans” in Farsi. Despite repeated invasions, Iranians have preserved a distinct identity, and the Islamization of the region never erased all traces of its ancient heritage.

12 Iraq

Iraq is often remembered for the Gulf Wars, but the nation is steadily rebuilding after extensive damage. It has been a republic since the 1958 overthrow of the monarchy.

11 Israel

Israel’s existence fuels ongoing regional tension, yet the nation continues to expand its territory and cultural footprint. The recent relocation of the capital to Jerusalem remains controversial, and the future of regional peace remains uncertain.

10 Jordan

Jordan is a constitutional monarchy ruled by King Abdullah II. It boasts historic treasures such as the oldest known human statues (the Ayn Ghazal figures), the rose‑red city of Petra, the Roman ruins of Jerash, the Dead Sea’s shimmering waters, and the dramatic red deserts of Wadi Rum.

9 Kuwait

Kuwait, a constitutional monarchy led by an Emir, gained independence from Britain in 1961. The 1990 invasion by Saddam Hussein’s forces sparked the Gulf War, a pivotal moment in its modern history.

8 Lebanon

Lebanon holds the record for the oldest continuous country name, spanning roughly 4,000 years. Its unique confessional political system shares power among religious groups: the President is a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, and the Speaker of Parliament a Shiite Muslim. About 40 % of its population is Christian—the highest proportion in the region.

7 Oman

Oman dazzles with natural wonders—from the golden Wahiba Sands to the lush oasis of Salalah—alongside historic gems like the Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque and Nizwa Fort. Inhabited for over 100,000 years, it even boasts a quirky love for Mountain Dew, a near‑absence of Coca‑Cola, and a remarkably low crime rate. Alcohol is permitted for licensed residents, with consumption capped at 10 % of monthly income.

6 Qatar

Like Kuwait, Qatar was a British protectorate until its 1971 independence. Women gained voting rights in 1995. Traditional attire includes the white thoub for men and a black cloak for women. The National Museum, inaugurated with celebrity guests, showcases Qatar’s heritage. Homosexuality remains illegal and punishable by death.

5 Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia lacks permanent rivers, but its wadis fill seasonally, creating dramatic valleys. The Kingdom Centre, famed for its sky‑bridge hole, ranks among the world’s tallest buildings. Plans are underway for the Kingdom Tower, poised to reach a kilometer in height—the tallest structure on Earth.

4 Syria

Syria’s visual treasures include the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, the historic Citadel of Aleppo, and the pre‑destruction splendor of Palmyra. Over thirty nations have troops on Syrian soil, battling ISIS and contributing to the broader migration crisis affecting Europe.

3 Turkey

Turkey dazzles with world‑renowned sites: the legendary city of Troy, the rose‑colored cliffs of Cappadocia, the alabaster terraces of Pamukkale, the Ottoman charm of Safranbolu, and the iconic Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, once Constantinople.

2 United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates comprises seven emirates, each ruled by an Emir. Abu Dhabi serves as the capital, while Dubai’s ruler also acts as Prime Minister. Highlights include the majestic Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque, the adrenaline‑pumping Yas Waterworld, and Al Ain Oasis—the federation’s first UNESCO World Heritage site.

1 Yemen

Yemen’s visual gems feature the otherworldly island of Socotra, the historic old town of Sana’a, the bustling port of Aden, and the verdant city of Ibb. Isolated for millions of years, Socotra’s flora evolved into a surreal landscape, earning UNESCO natural heritage status.

The Middle Ages spanned from roughly AD 500 to AD 1500. It was a period filled with famine, plague, and war. Ruled by the king, the people of medieval England lived under a feudal system heavily influenced by the Roman Catholic Church.

During the Middle Ages, both laws and the penalties for breaking them were very different from the ones we are familiar with today. From football being outlawed to the practice of witchcraft being punishable by death, here are ten ludicrous laws from the Middle Ages that, thankfully, are no longer in place.

Related: Top 10 Ridiculous Laws That Are Still Enforced Across The World

10 Playing Football Was Forbidden

While football players today have a reputation of being dramatic over the smallest of injuries, their predecessors were the exact opposite. Medieval football was a violent game. While there were not as many rules, there was a lot more bloodshed. Rather than a ball, an inflated pig’s bladder was kicked up and down the entire length of a village, with the goals sometimes miles apart. Players could kick and punch both the bladder and their opponents, resulting in many injuries and the occasional death.

Football was banned in 1349 by Edward III, not because he was concerned about public health but rather about national security. Not only was England at war with France in 1349, but the country was also suffering the loss of many lives due to the Black Death, a global epidemic of the bubonic plague. Edward III wanted his remaining, healthy men to be focused on their archery practice rather than getting distracted by football. The punishment for playing football was six days imprisonment.^[1]

9 Blowing One’s Nose Was Illegal

Newmarket, a town in the English county of Suffolk, is known as the birthplace of horse racing. The practice dates back to the 12th century, but James I popularized it after building a palace there in 1606, which drew in a lot of people.

Over time horse racing in Newmarket grew into a large business, and the town was forced to establish laws to protect the horses, including one that made it illegal for people to blow their noses in the street. This was to reduce the risk of the horses getting sick. What a nightmare it must have been for people with hay fever!

Blowing one’s nose wasn’t the only thing that could get a person in trouble. Anyone walking around with a head cold or temperature had to pay a fine. Obviously, Horse racing was a serious business.^[2]

8 You Had to Have Your Master’s Permission to Get Married

Today, it’s daunting enough having to ask the father of your partner for their child’s hand in marriage. While this practice is done out of respect, the answer given does not decide your future, and you can still get married—even if the father does not give his blessing. This, however, was not the case in the Middle Ages.

Societal rank played a large role in medieval life, especially for those at the bottom of the pyramid. Peasants and serfs working and living under landowners essentially had no freedom. A man wanting to get married not only had to get the father”s permission but also their landowner’s.

For a woman, the situation was even worse. If her husband died, the landowner could force them to marry another man in a relatively short amount of time. If they refused, they could receive punishment. ^[3]

7 Wearing Long, Pointy Footwear Was Forbidden

Fifteenth-century Britain was a time of flamboyance. Along with short shirts, long, pointy-ended shoes known as crackows, or pikes, had become the height of men’s fashion. It was believed that the longer the toe, the more masculine and rich the wearer, so much so that shoes sometimes extended up to five inches beyond the toe. This led to the ends occasionally having to be tied around the wearer’s ankles.

As the fashion continued growing and peasants began wearing more extravagant clothing, the English crown finally decided to step in. They wished to preserve the feudal hierarchy and stop people from dressing above their social rank. Between 1463 and 1604, a law passed that said that “No knight under the rank of a lord, esquire, or gentleman, nor any other person, shall wear any shoes or boots having spikes or points which exceed the length of two inches.” The punishment was a fine of three shillings and four pence, which is just over US$136.^[4]

6 People Could No Longer Eat More Than Two Courses

In the Middle Ages, there were many sumptuary laws that restricted what people could eat and drink. They were intended to reduce excessive eating and prevent people of lower social status from matching the lifestyles of those above them.

In 1336, a law banned that people, no matter their rank, shall be served a meal with no more than two courses. Soup, it made sure to specify, counted as a full course meal and wasn’t just a sauce. The exception to the law was on certain festivals, such as Christmas, where three courses were allowed.^[5]

5 Commit a Crime, Go through an Ordeal

In medieval England, the peasants had strength in their numbers. To stay in power and prevent revolts, the upper-class authorities made it so that even the smallest of crimes committed had harsh penalties. The idea of this was to make the poor fear stepping out of line. Even petty crimes (theft, disturbing the peace—which often meant the king—or vagrancy) sometimes resulted in harsh punishments, from flogging to having some part of the body cut off (hands were quite common). Until 1215, even being accused of a crime resulted in the punishment of enduring an ordeal that revealed a person’s innocence or guilt.

There were three ordeals:

Ordeal by fire: The accused held a red-hot iron bar in their hands and walked three meters. After three days of being bandaged up, the wound on the hand would be looked at to determine the accused’s fate. If it was healing, they were innocent; if it wasn’t, they were guilty.

Ordeal by water: The accused was tied up and thrown into a body of water. If they sank, they were innocent. If they floated, it was seen that the river had not accepted them, and, therefore, they were guilty.

Ordeal by combat: This was combat between the accused and accuser. It was believed that God would give strength to the innocent. It must be noted that the fight often ended in the loser’s death.

The practice of ordeals was declared over by the Pope in 1215 and was replaced by a jury process.^[6]

4 No Sex on Certain Days of the Week

Throughout the Middle Ages, there were a number of religious laws that tried to restrict when a person could have sex. In an average seven-day week, a married couple could only have sex on four of the days. Days in which sex was prohibited included Thursday and Friday because people were supposed to prepare for Holy Communion and Sunday—because it was the Lord’s day.

And that wasn’t all. Throughout the year, there were many other periods where sex was banned, including 47 to 62 days during Lent, the 35 days before Christmas, and the time around the Feast of Pentecost, which could be anywhere from 40 to 60 days.

Medieval people believed that eye contact was an important part of sexual attraction. It was said that “the eye was not a passive receiver but was instead active in sending out rays of sight toward the object of vision. The very act of looking could stimulate desire in the observer and the observed.” Women were advised to be careful about when they looked at men—so as to not tempt them at the wrong time.^[7]

8 Playing Tennis Was Forbidden

Football wasn’t the only sport banned in the Middle Ages. In 1485, it became illegal for young men who weren’t nobles to play tennis, with the only exception being on Christmas day. Medieval tennis was believed to disrupt labor and encourage gambling in workers because participants were left in unsupervised situations without their masters around.

The banning of tennis in the lower classes helped to maintain the feudal hierarchy. Tennis began to be seen as an exclusively upper-class sport because it needed expensive equipment and required an understanding of complex rules and social etiquette.

Tennis eventually became known as “the sport of kings,” with Henry VII and Henry VIII both apparently very into the game. A Venetian Ambassador who watched Henry VIII play in his youth said, “It was the prettiest thing in the world to see him play; his fair skin glowing through a shirt of the finest texture.” Thankfully today, tennis can be played by all.^[8]

2 Blasphemy Resulted in the Loss of One’s Tongue

In the Middle Ages, people had to watch their tongues, both physically and metaphorically, to avoid breaking the religious law regarding blasphemy, the action of speaking ill about God or sacred things. The law was put in place by the medieval Catholic Church to maintain control and order.

The church viewed blasphemy as a severe crime and gave it an equally severe punishment. The penalty for blasphemers was harsh. Often a person would be bound and tied while their tongue was removed with hot pliers, leaving them mute for the rest of their lives. Other punishments included stoning and hangings.^[9]

1 Practicing Witchcraft Was Punishable by Death

In the Middle Ages, people did not understand how many things worked around them, especially natural phenomena, as much was unknown to the scientific world. Humans, in general, do not like uncertainty, and the people of the Middle Ages were no different. Usually, God was their answer for things that could not be explained. However, when it came to naturally occurring ill-fortunes such as sickness, bad harvests, and the deaths of animals, they blamed witches because God, in their eyes, could not do evil.

Witches were believed to be able to summon evil spirits and demons, but in reality, they were usually just poor, elderly women who owned a cat. While widespread witch trials throughout Europe didn’t reach their peak until the late fifteenth century, certain women were ostracized and punished when seen as different.

In 1542, the Witchcraft Act was passed by parliament and established that witchcraft was a crime punishable by death. Witch-hunting became huge after that, especially in southeast England, and it is believed that over 500 people were put to death between the 15th and 18th centuries.^[10]

In 2022, cannibalism became a popular subject again for mass media purposes. First, there was the 2022 three-part series House of Hammer about disgraced actor Armie Hammer who was accused of sexual abuse and cannibalistic fantasies. Then there were shows like Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story and Yellowjackets as well as the movies Fresh and Bones and All.

Cannibalism is nothing new, though. Shakespeare even tackled the subject in Titus Andronicus. By and large, cannibalism involves one adult eating another. However, there’s a long, dark, and forgotten corner of history about cannibals eating children. This article examines some of the most terrifying cases from the medieval ages about filial cannibalism or the cannibalism of children.

10 The People of Lamuri

Odoric of Pordenone is a Franciscan friar who lived from 1286 to 1331 and documented his travels during the 14th century. Odoric’s reports were subsequently popularized and even later plagiarized by Sir John Mandeville, who is likely to have never left his abbey or dispensary.

The Travels of Sir John Mandeville are how great minds like Columbus, da Vinci, and Shakespeare first learned about the wonders of the ancient East.

One of the many places that Odoric visited was Lamuri, a kingdom in northern Indonesia that lasted until the beginning of the 16th century. The area is believed to be one of the earliest places where Islam arrived in the Indonesian archipelago.

During Odoric’s travels, he passed through Lamuri, which is derived from the medieval Arabic word for the area of Sumatra, where the population traded. The populace of Lamuri walked around without clothing and made fun of Odoric for his clothes. The people of Lamuri also did not believe in marriage, sharing all women among each other. Odoric, however, noted that the people of Lamuri had one “wicked habit”: children were bought if adequately “plump” or reared until they were bigger. The people of Lamuri commented to Odoric that child flesh was the “sweetest meat in the world.”^[1]

9 The Siege of Ma’arra

The Siege of Ma’arra occurred in late 1098 in what is now Syria during the First Crusade. After capturing Antioch, Crusaders moved to the south and began raiding and pillaging each town they found, which is where they encountered the city of Ma’arra on December 11, 1098. It was a peaceful city whose economy was based on the growth of olives, figs, and grapes. Ma’arra was subsequently devastated by the Crusaders, who killed thousands of people.

But Ma’arra was also the site of cannibalism. Radulph of Caen, who chronicled the genocide, observed that adults classified as pagans were boiled in pots while children were impaled on spits, then grilled and eaten. Fulcher of Chartres, another observer at the time, wrote that the Crusaders, driven by hunger, removed the buttocks from corpses found in the city, which they then cooked and ate mostly rare.^[2]

8 The Waldenses

The Waldenses began as a Christianity movement in France during the late 1170s. The group was named after its founder, Peter Waldo, who was a wealthy Lyon merchant. Waldo had heard a troubadour sing about St. Alexius, the patron saint of beggars and pilgrims. This song, combined with the loss that Waldo experienced at the sudden death of his friend, led him to believe that all his belongings were worthless. This led him to give away his property to the poor and begin street preaching.

The Waldenses were persecuted heavily throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1655, the Duke of Savoy ordered the Waldenses to attend Mass or be removed from their homes. The Waldenses had twenty days to sell their land. The Waldenses chose to leave their homes and move to the upper valley, which required them to make a trek through the Alps in the middle of winter. The Duke sent his troops after the Waldenses and required the Waldenses to allow the troops into their homes, which gave the troops easy access to the group.

On April 24, 1655, a signal for a massacre was given, known as the Piedmont Easter. Writer Peter Liegé observed that children were separated from their mothers, clasped by their feet, and smashed against rocks or held between two soldiers and torn apart. During the Piedmont Easter, troops also cooked the arms and legs of people, including children. Other people were roasted alive.^[3]

7 The Ming Dynasty

The Ming Dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644, during which time China’s population increased substantially. The Ming Dynasty is remembered for expanding trade, creating long-lasting drama and literature, and making porcelain.

The Ming Dynasty popularized a practice that had become popular during the earlier Tang Dynasty. In the 700s, a physician, Ch’en Tsang-ch’I, became the first Chinese doctor on record to prescribe human flesh for various ailments. Three requirements were necessary before the good doctor prescribed human flesh. First, the act must be voluntary—the donor had to donate parts of themselves for this intended purpose. Second, the donor and the recipient needed to bear a close relationship, which often meant that the donor was a child or child-in-law. And finally, the recipient could not know they were consuming human flesh, so the flesh was disguised in ordinary food.^[4]

6 The Great Famine of 1315

In the 14th century, cold weather and famine in England led to the Great Famine of 1315 to 1322. Before the cold came, Europe pushed itself to the limits of its resources. Four centuries of mild temperature led the country’s farmers to grow crops on vast quantities of land that were previously not suitable for agriculture. This led to an increased food supply which led to a population explosion and tripled the number of people in Europe. When these lands stopped being able to produce food due to frosts and floods, millions of extra mouths needed to be fed. This led to civil wars and rebellions. Two harvest failures in 1314 and 1315 turned into years of famine.

While all of Europe was hit, Europe’s towns were where the Great Famine hit the worst. Corpses piled up in streets, bodies were flung into open pits, and countless stories abound of cannibalism and child abandonment. The cannibalism of children was so common during this time that the folk tale “Hansel and Gretel” was created.^[5]

5 The Tupinambá

The Tupinambá are a group of South American Indians who speak the Tupian language and live on the eastern coast of Brazil. In the past, the group lived in villages that ranged in size from 400 to 1,600 people who supported themselves by farming and fishing in the ocean. War among the Tupinambá was a common occurrence. The group was focused on war and is alleged to have practiced cannibalism.

Manuel de Nóbrega was a Jesuit priest who lived from 1517 to 1570 and founded the Jesuit mission in Brazil. Nóbrega wrote in his book Reports on the Lands of Brazil that the Tupinambá only waged war out of hatred for the enemy. Nóbrega wrote that the Tupinambá fought one another and that when enemies were captured, they were kept as prisoners. At the same time, their daughters were taken as wives, and the prisoners were then killed with great celebration. They smoked corpses in the fire and then ate them. If the enemies left children, these were eaten too.^[6]

4 The Caribs

The Caribs are indigenous people on the northern coast of South America. Today, the Caribs live in villages along the shores of Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana and speak a language called Carib. Christopher Columbus was the first to report on cannibalism among the Caribs. Amerigo Vespucci wrote that the Caribs ate little meat except that which came from humans and that the Caribs ate all of their enemies, whether man or woman.

Observing the Caribs, Padre Augustin de Frias wrote that the Caribs from the Guarapiche/Guanipa area chose to eat young children instead of prisoners. The Caribs in this area also practiced a form of euthanasia in which the elderly were eaten so they would not have to face a lingering death. Some historians argue that these practices were merely the result of propaganda against Indigenous people, though, who resisted the Spanish.^[7]

3 The Aztecs

The Aztecs began sacrificing humans in the early fourteenth century. At first, sacrifices were uncommon but grew in number as time passed and the empire expanded. The Aztec sacrifice of humans was inspired by the idea that the human body contained energy that kept the sun in motion through the sky and subsequently renewed time, crops, and human lives.

During Aztec sacrifices, human hearts were offered to the sun, and blood was smeared on the walls to make sure Aztec temples were coated with energy. In addition to men and women, children were sacrificed too in the first quarter of the Aztec year. Children were purchased from their parents specifically to be sacrificed. Hernando Cortes’s man allegedly came across roasted babies, which the Aztecs carried as provisions but abandoned when they noticed the Spaniards.^[8]

2 The Korowai

The Korowai tribe of Papa New Guinea practices a type of revenge cannibalism that impacts children. The Korowai were in full swing during the Middle Ages and, for centuries, have believed in sorcery, witchcraft, and revenge on a widespread social level. Abnormal behavior among the Korowai can lead a person to be accused of participating in sorcery. Additionally, because the culture has had no breakthroughs regarding medicine and health, they have their own methods for explaining sicknesses.

Before someone passes away in the Korowai tribe, they might claim that they know who the sorcerer is. This might lead to a child being named. After the person’s death, the alleged sorcerer is then found, made to stand in a clearing, shot with arrows, cooked, and eaten. The alleged sorcerer’s body is then dismembered and placed on branches to warn others.^[9]

1 The Siege of Suiyang

China’s An Lushan Rebellion started in 755. The following year, the rebel Yan army had control of most of northern China. In 757, emperor An Qinxu ordered general Yin Ziqi to take control of Suiyang (which is the current day site of Shangqiu, Henan) because the city was situated between two major ones. Yin Ziqi’s 130,000-man army then took control of Suiyang while fighting against Zhang Xun and the Xu Yuan army of around 6,800 men.

Through clever tactics, Zhang Xun was able to kill around 5,000 Yan troops at first. Zhang Xun then killed general Yin Ziqi, which greatly disorganized the Yan army. In 16 days, the Yan army had lost around 20,000 men, which led Yin Ziqi to order a retreat. Yin Ziqi returned to take Suiyang later with 20,000 new men. The Xu Yuan and Zhang Xun had prepared for the battle by storing food inside the city of Suiyang. This was lessened when it was shared with neighboring kingdoms. Soldiers received very small rations. Zhang Xun was soon left fighting 1,600 soldiers who were starving and sick. The soldiers grew further desperate without outside help. Before long, Zhang Xun’s men were eating tree bark, tea leaves, and paper.

The dwellers of Suiyang during this time traded their children to eat and cook corpses. Zhang Xun even killed his concubine in front of his soldier and proceeded to cook and consume her flesh. When the woman was eaten, the troops ate the old and young. Before long, there were no more people to eat. Eventually, Suiyang fell to the rebels, and Zhang Xun was captured.^[10]