By modern standards, legal systems in medieval Europe were unfair and weak. The 10 bizarre legal cases we examine reveal how trials by ordeal, torture, and brutal punishments were once accepted as reliable ways to determine guilt or innocence.

1. The Leprosy Scare Trials

In medieval times, leprosy was believed to be extremely contagious. Fear of the disease led Europeans to isolate lepers, branding them both unclean and suspicious. The stigma turned lepers into easy targets for blame and persecution.

In the spring of 1321, a rumor spread across southern France that lepers were conspiring to poison wells and unleash a nationwide leprosy epidemic. Supposedly, once the population was infected, the lepers would overthrow the government and seize control of the kingdom. Brutal interrogations of the accused also implicated Jews and a Muslim ruler in the imagined plot.

Although the whole story was fabricated, King Philip V ordered every leper in the realm to be arrested and tried for treason. Hysterical mobs murdered countless lepers without consequence, while those who faced formal trials were tortured and burned at the stake. By the end of the year, thousands had perished. It was not until 1338 that the Avignon Pope publicly declared the lepers innocent.

Tristan Shaw keeps a blog called Bizarre and Grotesque, where he writes about folklore, paranormal phenomena, and unsolved crime.

2. Joan Of Arc

Nearly everyone knows Joan of Arc’s infamous 1431 trial and execution, but fewer are aware of her posthumous retrial more than two decades later. The original proceeding listed seventy accusations, later narrowed to twelve, and ended with her being burned as a heretic.

In 1450, the French king ordered an investigation into the fairness of Joan’s trial. The inquiry uncovered numerous procedural flaws, especially the heavy English influence in Rouen, which was under English control at the time, rendering the original trial deeply biased.

By 1455, Pope Calixtus III authorized a new trial. After eight months of deliberation, the court declared all twelve original charges fraudulent, effectively exonerating Joan of the heresy accusation and restoring her reputation.

3. Girolamo Savonarola

In late‑15th‑century Florence, Dominican preacher Girolamo Savonarola wielded extraordinary influence, openly challenging both the civic government and the Catholic hierarchy while claiming prophetic insight.

Excommunicated in 1497, Savonarola faced a dramatic “trial by fire” in 1498, proposed by rival Francesco da Puglia. The premise: if Savonarola could walk through flames unharmed, it would prove divine favor and invalidate the papal ban.

The spectacle collapsed when a sudden thunderstorm extinguished the flames. The debacle led to Savonarola’s arrest, forced confession of false prophecy under torture, and eventual execution by hanging alongside two supporters.

4. John Rykener

John Rykener, a 14th‑century Londoner, led a double life as a male playboy and a female‑clothed prostitute known as Eleanor. His secret was uncovered in December 1395 when city officials caught him in a street stall with a client.

The client, unaware of John’s biological sex, reported the encounter. John admitted to cross‑dressing and revealed an extensive list of male patrons, including aristocratic scholars, chaplains, friars, and even priests.

He also boasted of sleeping with nuns for free while presenting as a man. The historical record does not reveal John’s ultimate fate, though it is likely he faced a sodomy conviction.

5. Stadelin Of Boltigen

Stadelin, a Swiss farmer from Boltigen between 1392 and 1406, became the target of witchcraft accusations after a bountiful harvest sparked rumors that he used sorcery to steal crops from neighboring fields and manipulate the weather.

Villagers also claimed he caused a local woman to miscarry seven times. Under torture, Stadelin confessed to consorting with demons, who summoned thunderstorms whenever he tossed a black chicken into the air. He blamed a buried lizard for the woman’s infertility.

Stadelin further implicated his wife as a witch and advised authorities not to trust her denials. Both were burned at the stake for their confessions.

6. Count Gero Of Alsleben

Trial by combat, a relic of Germanic custom, sometimes settled disputes in medieval Europe, even pitting monasteries or spouses against each other. In 979, the Holy Roman Empire arranged a duel between Count Gero of Alsleben and a Saxon named Waldo.

The exact grievance remains unclear, but Waldo brought a charge that led to Gero’s arrest. During the fight, Gero slashed Waldo’s neck, yet Waldo struck Gero’s head, winning the duel.

In a bizarre twist, Waldo collapsed and died immediately after his victory. Nonetheless, judges declared the dead man the winner, and Emperor Otto II ordered Gero’s execution by decapitation.

7. Pope Formosus

In January 897, Pope Stephen VI convened a post‑mortem trial against his predecessor Pope Formosus, who had died nine months earlier. Stephen exhumed Formosus’s corpse, propped it on a chair, and charged him with perjury, ambition for the papacy, and violations of canon law.

The dead pope was found guilty; his papacy was declared null, his appointments void, and his fingers were severed. Formosus’s body was then dumped into the Tiber River.

Public outrage forced a second trial later that year, which restored Formosus’s reputation and granted his remains an honorable burial.

8. Pandonus

Anti‑Jewish sentiment permeated medieval Europe, restricting Jews from many professions, imposing distinctive clothing, and barring them from public office or marriage to Christians.

In 14th‑century Avignon, a Jewish man named Pandonus was accused of adultery after having relations with a Christian woman. Although he confessed, jurist Oldradus de Ponte argued that without a marriage, the act could not be classified as adultery.

Two judges disagreed; one ordered Pandonus’s castration, displaying his genitals on the royal palace doors as a warning to mixed couples.

9. Rolandino Ronchaia

Rolandino Ronchaia, a 14th‑century Venetian hermaphrodite, was born with a penis yet developed full breasts and a strikingly feminine appearance. He married a woman, but the marriage dissolved because he could not achieve an erection.

After his wife left, Ronchaia moved into a relative’s house in Padua. A guest, attracted to his feminine features, made a sexual advance, prompting Ronchaia to adopt a female identity, rename himself Rolandina, and work as a prostitute.

His clientele, unaware of his biological sex, swelled until city authorities intervened. Charged with sodomy, Ronchaia was sentenced to be burned alive despite officials acknowledging his intersex condition.

10. Rose De Savage

On a chilly January morning in 1280, Rose de Savage was abducted while en route to church. John de Clifford, leader of the kidnappers, took her to his home, forced her to undress, raped her, and then locked her in an upper‑story bedroom.

Rose endured 21 months of captivity until, on St. Martin’s Day in November 1282, she escaped by leaping from a window. A trial for “rape and breach of the king’s peace” was soon convened against de Clifford.

Clifford denied the accusations, and oddly, Rose herself was imprisoned for failing to provide precise dates of the assault. Although a jury eventually found Clifford guilty, he escaped severe punishment, paying only a fine.

10 Bizarre Legal Context

The cases above illustrate the astonishingly strange and often brutal legal practices that defined medieval Europe’s quest for justice.

When you hear the phrase “10 fascinating laws,” you probably picture statutes or physics equations. Yet there exists a trove of witty, observation‑based rules that sit somewhere between folklore and formal theory. These ten gems—spanning journalism, futurism, software, medicine, economics, and more—aren’t codified in any courtroom, but they influence how we think, write, and build. Let’s dive into each one, explore its origins, and see why they still matter.

Why These 10 Fascinating Laws Matter

10 Betteridge’s Law of Headlines

Imagine a headline that asks, “Do Pineapples Make Great iPhone Cases?” The answer is obviously a resounding “no,” yet the question format teases curiosity. British tech journalist Ian Betteridge observed that whenever a headline poses a yes‑or‑no question, the safest bet is to assume the answer is “no.” This heuristic, now called Betteridge’s Law of Headlines, suggests that such polar questions are often a cover for stories lacking solid evidence.

Betteridge first coined the rule in a 2009 critique of a tech news site that had spread a bogus rumor via a question‑style headline. He noted that journalists employ this tactic to publish pieces they suspect are unreliable, banking on the ambiguity of the question to attract clicks while sidestepping responsibility.

Though Betteridge popularized the observation, he wasn’t the first. Veteran British reporter Andrew Marr warned readers back in 2004 to automatically answer “no” to question headlines, hinting that the pattern had been noticed long before Betteridge’s formal naming.

9 Clarke’s First Law

Betteridge’s rule warns us about sensational headlines, but another common pitfall lies in the predictions of esteemed scientists. Science‑fiction author Arthur C. Clarke argued that when a distinguished, older scientist claims something is possible, they’re usually spot‑on. Conversely, when they declare something impossible, they’re often wrong.

This insight forms the first of Clarke’s three famous laws and appeared in a 1962 essay where he blamed a lack of imagination for poor forecasting. He suggested that senior scientists, steeped in existing paradigms, frequently underestimate future breakthroughs.

Isaac Asimov later offered a twist: if the public passionately backs an idea that senior scientists dismiss, the scientists might actually be correct. This adds a sociopolitical layer to Clarke’s otherwise purely epistemic observation.

8 Cunningham’s Law

While Betteridge and Clarke give us cues about trustworthiness, Ward Cunningham—one of the pioneers of wiki technology—proposed a more proactive approach. Cunningham’s Law states that a false statement is more likely to be corrected than a straightforward question is to be answered.

In practice, if you need information, you can post an authoritative but deliberately false claim online. The community, eager to set the record straight, will often flood the thread with corrections, delivering the accurate answer you sought.

Although Cunningham’s name is attached, the tactic predates him. The ancient philosopher Socrates famously began dialogues with deliberately flawed arguments, prompting his interlocutors to expose the errors—a classic early example of the law in action.

7 Andy and Bill’s Law

Moore’s Law predicts that transistor counts on chips double roughly every two years, driving rapid improvements in computing speed and cost. Intel’s former CEO Andy Grove, however, observed a countervailing force: software developers, especially those led by Microsoft’s Bill Gates, tend to consume the newly available hardware horsepower.

Dubbed “Andy and Bill’s Law,” the principle humorously notes that gains from hardware advances are often offset by software that grows more demanding, effectively “taking away” the extra power. Some jokes even swap in Gordon Moore as the giver, emphasizing the cyclical push‑pull between hardware and software innovation.

This dynamic explains why today’s smartphones pack more processing capability than the Apollo spacecraft that landed humans on the Moon, illustrating the relentless dance between silicon and code.

6 Eroom’s Law

Moore’s Law has been a beacon of exponential progress, yet its ripple effects haven’t benefited every sector. A 2012 study examined pharmaceutical research and found a stark opposite trend: the number of new drugs approved per billion dollars of R&D spending has halved roughly every nine years since 1950.

This phenomenon, dubbed “Eroom’s Law” (Moore spelled backward), implies that drug development costs double every nine years. One suggested cause is the “better‑than‑the‑Beatles problem,” where regulatory standards demand ever‑greater improvements, making each new breakthrough harder to achieve.

Consequently, while chips become cheaper and faster, the pipeline of novel medicines slows, underscoring a perplexing divergence between technological and biomedical progress.

5 Goodhart’s Law

Goodhart’s Law, originally articulated by economist Charles Goodhart, warns that “when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.” In other words, metrics lose their reliability once they’re used as performance incentives.

A vivid illustration comes from early 20th‑century Vietnam, where rat catchers were tasked with bringing the tails of exterminated rats to officials as proof of their work. When the authorities began paying the catchers based on the number of tails submitted, the metric turned into a target.

Catchers quickly adapted by simply cutting off tails without actually killing the rats, allowing the rodent population to rebound while they continued to collect payment. The tail count no longer reflected true pest control effectiveness, perfectly embodying Goodhart’s insight.

4 Segal’s Law

Not every “law” is a rigorously tested principle; some are more like timeless proverbs. Segal’s Law states, “A man with one watch knows what time it is; a man with two is never sure.” The adage highlights the confusion that arises when conflicting sources provide differing information.

The earliest recorded appearance of this quip dates to a 1930 San Diego newspaper, where it was used as filler. It was mistakenly attributed to Texas radio personality Lee Segall (spelled with two L’s), a mistake that later spread through the popular “Murphy’s Law” anthology.

Over time, the saying has been mis‑credited to luminaries such as Mark Twain and Albert Einstein, though no evidence supports those attributions. Its enduring charm lies in the simple truth that too many data points can be more bewildering than a single, reliable one.

3 Benford’s Law

If you were to tally the first digit of every number appearing in a stack of newspapers, you might expect each digit (1‑9) to appear roughly equally. Benford’s Law, however, reveals a striking imbalance: lower digits occur far more frequently than higher ones.

The phenomenon was first noted by astronomer Simon Newcomb in 1881, who observed that the front pages of logarithmic tables were dirtier than the back, suggesting users preferred numbers beginning with 1. Decades later, physicist Frank Benford empirically confirmed the pattern using thousands of data sets.

Since then, Benford’s Law has surfaced in diverse realms—from electricity bills and street addresses to stock market prices and population statistics. It even serves as a forensic tool: fabricated figures often fail to exhibit the expected digit distribution, helping auditors spot fraud.

2 Benford’s Law of Controversy

Although it shares a name with the digit‑distribution rule, Benford’s Law of Controversy was proposed by astrophysicist Gregory Benford. It asserts that “passion is inversely proportional to the amount of real information available.” When factual data are scarce, people tend to fill the void with speculation, rumor, or narratives that align with their biases.

This dynamic fuels heated debates on topics where evidence is thin; individuals gravitate toward explanations that satisfy emotional or tribal needs. The law reminds us that uncertainty is uncomfortable, prompting the brain to craft comforting—if inaccurate—stories.

1 Hofstadter’s Law

Even if you recognize the pitfalls highlighted by Benford’s Law of Controversy, you may still find yourself unable to sidestep another paradox: Hofstadter’s Law declares that “planned tasks will always take longer than expected, even when you take Hofstadter’s Law into account.”

Douglas Hofstadter, a cognitive scientist, coined this self‑referential rule to illustrate the recursive nature of human optimism. Knowing that projects overrun, we often pad our estimates, only to discover that the padding itself is insufficient.

Famous examples include the protracted construction of the Sydney Opera House, which ballooned far beyond its original schedule, and London’s Wembley Stadium, which missed its 2003, 2005, and 2006 opening targets before finally debuting in 2007.

10 over top name swaps are more common than you think, but the stories behind them can be downright jaw‑dropping. Ever wondered what would happen if a parent named their kid “Talula Does the Hula From Hawaii”? Or if a dentist legally became “Painless”? Around the globe, people have taken the legal route to adopt monikers that range from the absurd to the historically significant. Below, we dive into ten real‑life, over‑the‑top name changes that made headlines, courtrooms, and even medical journals sit up and take notice.

10 over top Highlights

10 A New Zealand Judge Took Custody Away From Parents Who Had Given Their Child a Stupid Name

No child should ever have to bear the weight of an embarrassing moniker, yet some parents seem to have a genetic predisposition for cringe‑worthy naming choices. In a bizarre case that unfolded in Australia, nine‑year‑old Talula Does the Hula From Hawaii found herself thrust into the legal spotlight after her parents, amid a bitter custody battle, gave her the single‑letter nickname “K” because she was mortified by her full name.

The family court intervened, declaring that the parents’ poor judgment had set their daughter up for relentless ridicule. The presiding judge stripped both parents of custody, allowing the child to be legally renamed in order to protect her wellbeing. He emphasized that the original name was a clear source of humiliation and that the child’s refusal to use it underscored the issue.

To safeguard her privacy, the new name was kept confidential, and the court’s decisive action aimed to give Talula a fresh start free from the shadow of an absurd birth name.

9 French Courts Forcibly Named a Girl Ella

Nutella, the beloved hazelnut spread, has inspired countless breakfast tables, but it also inspired a French couple to attempt naming their newborn “Nutella”. The parents hoped to give their daughter a sweet, memorable moniker, but the French judiciary stepped in, deeming the name potentially harmful due to its likely teasing potential.

French law permits authorities to reject names that could subject a child to ridicule. In this case, the judge concluded that naming a child after a popular confection could lead to unwanted mockery, thereby acting against the child’s best interests.

Since the parents failed to appear at the hearing, the judge unilaterally assigned the name “Ella”, a more conventional choice that satisfied legal standards while still preserving a touch of the parents’ original intent.

8 A Man Legally Named Himself After Every James Bond Movie

James Bond is synonymous with suave espionage, but one UK resident took the admiration a step further. After completing a straightforward deed poll—a legal document used to record a name change—23‑year‑old David Fearn transformed his identity into a rolling tribute to the entire Bond franchise.

While many might settle for simply “James Bond”, Fearn added an exhaustive middle name that strings together every title from the iconic series. His full legal name now reads: James Dr No From Russia With Love Goldfinger Thunderball You Only Live Twice On Her Majesty’s Secret Service Diamonds Are Forever Live and Let Die The Man with the Golden Gun The Spy Who Loved Me Moonraker For Your Eyes Only Octopussy A View to a Kill The Living Daylights Licence to Kill GoldenEye Tomorrow Never Dies The World Is Not Enough Die Another Day Casino Royale Bond.

This tongue‑in‑cheek homage showcases just how far a fan can go when the law makes name changes relatively painless.

7 The Ultimate Warrior Legally Changed His Name to Warrior

If you grew up watching 1980s wrestling, you know the larger‑than‑life persona of the Ultimate Warrior. Jim Hellwig, the man behind the mask, was notorious for his volatile personality off‑camera, including inflammatory remarks and controversial blog posts.

Seeking to fully embody his in‑ring persona, Hellwig legally shed his given name and adopted “Warrior” as his official surname. The change cemented his brand, and even after his 2014 passing, his two daughters continue to carry the Warrior name.

6 A Dentist Legally Changed his Name to Painless

Back in 1892, dentistry was a rugged trade, and patients often dreaded the experience. Enter Edgar Parker, a self‑styled practitioner who, after a dubious graduation, marketed his services as “Painless Dentistry”—a bold claim in an era where pain was the norm.

To bolster his advertising, Parker teamed up with a traveling carnival, staging theatrical tooth‑pulling demonstrations. He would dramatize a quick, painless extraction on a volunteer, covering any real screams with a lively band. The stunt drew crowds and boosted his clientele.

Within two years, realizing the potential legal loophole, Parker formally changed his first name to “Painless” via a court order. This maneuver ensured his promotional slogan could no longer be deemed false advertising.

5 Tutankhamun Changed His Name As a Nod to Old Gods

Most of us recognize Tutankhamun as the iconic boy‑king whose tomb captivated the world, yet few know he wasn’t born with that name. Originally called Tutankhaten—”living image of the Aten”—he bore a name honoring the sun‑god Aten, favored by his parents.

When he ascended the throne, a religious shift prompted a name change to Tutankhamun, aligning himself with the older deity Amun. This alteration signaled a return to traditional worship and helped restore the prominence of the ancient pantheon.

4 Anne Rice’s Parents Changed Her Name To Anne Because She Introduced Herself as Such

Anne Rice, the celebrated author of gothic vampire novels, was originally christened Howard Allen O’Brien—a decidedly masculine name inherited from her father. Growing up, young Howard was uncomfortable with the moniker and refused to answer to it.

When she entered a Catholic school, she introduced herself to the nuns as “Anne” in first grade. The name stuck, and by the time she was six, her parents formally changed her legal name to Anne, paving the way for the literary legend we know today.

3 An Angry Bank Customer Changed his Name to “Yorkshire Bank are Fascist Bastards”

Bank disputes can ignite fierce reactions, and one disgruntled Yorkshire Bank client took his fury to a legal extreme. After receiving a notice of a £10 overdraft accompanied by a £20 fee, Michael Howard filed a deed poll to rename himself “Yorkshire Bank are Fascist Bastards”.

The bank, unsurprised by the stunt, demanded the account be closed. Howard countered, insisting they could settle the matter by issuing a check for his remaining 69p balance addressed to his newly‑adopted legal name.

2 Macaulay Culkin Changed his Middle Name to Macaulay Culkin

You probably associate Macaulay Culkin with the mischievous kid from Home Alone, but many fans don’t know he once revamped his middle name. Originally “Carson”, Culkin asked his online followers in 2018 to vote on a new middle name for Christmas.

After tallying over 100,000 votes, he legally changed his full name to Macaulay Macaulay Culkin Culkin, echoing the public’s choice and adding a playful twist to his identity.

1 Dr. Loki Skylizard Chose His Legal Name When He Was 8

Meet Dr. Loki Skylizard, a board‑certified thoracic surgical oncologist based in Missouri who specializes in robot‑assisted cancer surgeries. His unique name traces back to an unconventional childhood decision.

Raised by parents who let their children pick their own names, the eight‑year‑old Loki chose “Loki Skylizard” for himself. His parents promptly filed the necessary paperwork, making the name official—a moniker he has proudly carried into his distinguished medical career.

Most of us are familiar with the dangers of illegal drugs. According to a report by Philadelphia drug rehab centers, along with the risk of addiction, severe health problems and other unwanted side effects, there is also the danger that a drug user will face punishment if caught. Depending on the drug and area, this punishment can involve anything from a warning to a lengthy jail sentence. But things weren’t always that way. Many drugs that are severely restricted today were once commonplace and completely legal. In fact, not only were these drugs available, they were actually recommended and promoted by healthcare professionals, often with unfortunate results. Here are ten of them:

10. Opium

Its usage is much older, but this form of dried juice from the opium poppy became popular in the United States during the 19^th Century. Back then, it was freely prescribed by doctors and even available at grocery stores. Chinese laborers had brought the practice of opium smoking to the West during the mid-nineteenth century, and laudanum, a solution of opium and alcohol, was also popular. Opium was often given to women to treat menstrual cramps and to infants to help with teething pain. Around the turn of the 20^th Century, most opium addicts were older women.

San Francisco first banned opium dens in 1875, and California restricted opium possession in 1907.  The 1914 Harrison Narcotics Tax Act effectively outlawed the drug throughout America. Today, drugs derived from the opium poppy, such as morphine and codeine, are legal but heavily restricted.

9. Marijuana

Usage of the cannabis plant, from which the psychoactive drug marijuana is derived, was unrestricted in America until the early twentieth century. In fact, in 1619 a Virginia law required farmers to grow native hemp on their plantations in order to produce textiles! Ironically, given its later reputation, the earliest state to ban the plant was California in 1913. Federal laws passed in 1937 restricted marijuana usage to the medicinal, and later laws in the 1950s introduced mandatory sentencing for possession, with the justification that marijuana was a ‘gateway drug’ into heavier narcotics. However, that hadn’t deterred researchers from finding the middle ground between the addictive nature of the drug and its medicinal properties. Not long after that did researchers discover that a derivative of marijuana, CBD, was not addictive and also had medicinal properties. Today, you can easily get a CBD flower for sale from many stores online.

Medical marijuana is now legal in over a dozen states, although still prohibited by federal law. The current administration has indicated that federal laws involving medical marijuana will not be enforced in these states. (http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/07/13/national/main5154550.shtml)

8. Methamphetamine

Nowadays a popular target for public service announcements, methamphetamine was first created by a Japanese chemist in 1893. In 1944, it was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in the US to treat a selection of medical conditions including narcolepsy, alcoholism, mild depression, and even seasonal allergies. By the 1950s, this legal medication had become popular under the name of Methedrine, but abuse had also become common. Passed in 1970, the Controlled Substances Act severely restricted its usage, although meth is still available under the name of Desoxyn for very limited uses.

Bad news for the congested: since the 1980s, there have also been strict crackdowns on several legal cold-and-flu drugs that can be used to produce methamphetamine, like ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. These previously over-the-counter medications now often require ID to purchase.

7. Peyote

Mescaline, a hallucinogenic chemical derived from the peyote cactus, has been used by Native American religious ceremonies for thousands of years. Peyote use was outlawed in several US states in the 1920s and 30s, but remained legal in most of the US throughout the 1960s and was often shipped interstate to interested parties.

Mescaline was restricted by Congress under the 1970 Controlled Substances Act. Currently, members of the federally-recognized Native American Church are exempt from criminal penalties for peyote use, as long as further state restrictions do not apply.

6. Cocaine

Many famous people of the early 20^th century, including Sigmund Freud and the Pope, were cocaine users. Although cocaine is derived from the coca plant, which has been in use for at least 3000 years, its modern incarnation only appeared around the 1860s. Available in many forms, including dissolved into wine, it was prescribed by doctors to treat depression and morphine addiction.

In America, it was popular as a treatment for coughs and pain, and was famously included in early versions of Coca-Cola. Although technically restricted by the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act in 1914, prosecution for cocaine usage was rare, and only became common after it was listed a controlled substance in 1970.

5. LSD

The psychedelic effects of LSD, or ‘acid’, were discovered by accident in 1943, after the Swiss scientist who invented the chemical accidentally absorbed some through his skin. During the 1950s the US Army, along with the CIA, researched the uses of LSD as a potential ‘truth drug’ for use in brainwashing. Their experiments involved giving LSD to everyone from CIA agents to prostitutes, and recording the results. Soon, psychiatrists also became interested in its potential therapeutic benefits. Although LSD was still being imported from Switzerland at this time, the drug’s formula could be purchased for a small sum from the US patent office, after which a user could synthesize LSD himself.

In 1966, after widespread abuse and ill-effects caused in part by people making the drug incorrectly, LSD was outlawed in California. In 1970, it was listed by Congress as a Schedule I substance, meaning it has no recognized medicinal or therapeutic uses.

4. GHB

Famous these days as a ‘date rape’ drug, GHB is a naturally-occurring neurochemical that produces a depressant, pain-relieving effect. A lab-made version was synthesized in the 1960s and was used widely in Europe as an anesthetic, particularly in childbirth. In the 1980s, it became popular among body builders as a legal sleep aid, and eventually as a legal recreational drug. After GHB became associated with abuse and accidental deaths, the FDA cracked down on its sale in 1990. It was not listed federally as a controlled substance (illegal to possess as well as to sell) until 2000 when, like LSD, it became a Schedule 1 drug. However, GHB has recently been approved as a heavily-controlled treatment for narcolepsy.

3. Magic Mushrooms

Also known as shrooms, magic mushrooms are fungi native to Asia and the Americas that contain psilocybin, a compound that produces an LSD-like effect in users. Magic mushrooms have been in use for millennia, but as recently as the early 20^th century Western academics were still arguing whether or not they existed. Use among Westerners was popularized in the 1950s after an article on the subject appeared in Life Magazine. In the 1960s, psychologist Timothy Leary and many others promoted these mushrooms for psychological use.

Possession of psilocybin-containing mushrooms was outlawed in 1968. However, since the mushroom spores do not contain psilocybin, spores are still legal in most states.

2. Ecstasy

MDMA, or ecstasy, was legal in the United States as recently as 1984. Synthesized and patented in 1912 by a chemist working for pharmaceutical company Merck, it was largely forgotten until the mid 1970s, when Berkeley professor Alexander Shulgin popularized it for use in psychotherapy. Shulgin claimed that it could help psychiatric patients achieve greater introspection and more openness with their therapists. Ecstasy also became popular in non-therapeutic settings, particularly nightclubs, and in 1985 was put under an ‘emergency ban’ and became a Schedule I controlled drug.

1. Heroin

First synthesized in 1874, heroin was first created as a non-addictive alternative to morphine. The word ‘heroin’ is actually a brand name created by the pharmaceutical company that invented it, Bayer. In the early 20^th century, it was also marketed in the US as a treatment for coughs and as a kind of old-fashioned methadone program for morphine users.

Unfortunately, the drug turned out to be more addictive than morphine. Heroin used to be legal, until it became apparent that it is more addictive than morphine, and can cause opiate withdrawal symptoms when its use is abruptly stopped. After hundreds of thousands of Americans saw their sore throats relieved only to be replaced with crippling addiction and long-term stays at a drug rehab program; heroin usage was severely restricted in the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914, and outlawed altogether in 1924.