Although incredibly different in many ways, the ancient world wrestled with the same problems that governments do today. As long as there have been people, there had been cops and robbers, and from the Inca to India, each society was policed as they saw fit. Here are ten law enforcement agencies that patrolled the ancient world.

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10 The Paqudu of Babylon

The Mesopotamian kingdom of Babylon is best known for its Code of Hammurabi, the first list of crimes and punishments ever created. The set of laws was carved onto stone pillars sometime in the tenth century BC.

As Babylon grew rich in the 6th century BC, so did their ability to maintain law and order. Their police officers, called padudu, were locals appointed with the task of protecting the town. The job was far from glamorous. Temple records describe the paqudu responding to a noisy tavern party, investigating a missed barely payment, and arresting looters for the destruction of temple property. When a sacred cow disappeared from its stable, the paqudu searched the neighborhood for suspiciously large amounts of fresh beef. Upon finding the tasty contraband, they turned it over to the court as evidence.^[1]

9 The Medjay and Temple Priests of Egypt

The ancient Egyptians were all about living in harmony, which they called Ma’at. But law enforcement was sometimes needed to maintain that harmony.

Egypt’s earliest police officers guarded public spaces with wooden sticks and trained attack dogs (and occasionally monkeys!) As Egypt expanded during the Middle Kingdom, Medjay warriors from the neighboring kingdom of Nubia offered their services as keepers of the peace. They became the bulk of the Egyptian police force, to the point where ancient Egyptian Chiefs of Police were referred to as “Chief of the Medjay,” even when native Egyptians had long since taken over the job.

During the New Kingdom, there was a special unit of police that served as temple priests. Their job was to preserve the sanctity of the temples by ensuring proper behavior during religious festivities. But if a crime involved a temple, they got to conduct their own criminal investigations.^[2]

8 The Krypteia of Sparta

Derived from the Greek word for “hidden,” the krypteia was Sparta’s secret police force. Instead of the typical Greek heavy armor and weapons, they carried easily concealed knives for clandestine kills. Hardened by training in the mountainous countryside with few rations and equipment, they were experienced warriors and excellent assassins.

The krypteia’s main enemy was the helots; Sparta’s agricultural serfs who had no choice but to work the land. The helots periodically revolted against their enslavement, so the krypteia were tasked with terrorizing them into submission. They would hide in the countryside, sleeping by day and killing stray helots by night. They were particularly interested in dispatching large men who might become threatening warriors.

At one point, the Spartans offered freedom to veteran helots. As the Greek chronicler Thucydides wrote, “As many as two thousand were selected accordingly…rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one ever knew how each of them perished.” There is little doubt who carried out these assassinations.^[3]

7 The Scythian Archers of Athens

Athens was the world’s first democracy, so Athenian citizens couldn’t go around arresting each other without cries of hypocrisy. This led to the government purchasing 300 Scythian archers as public slaves. It was simply the democratic thing to do.

The only contemporary accounts of the Scythian police force come from the comedic plays by Aristophanes, where they are portrayed as bumbling idiots. In Lysistrata, the Scythians attempt to arrest the eponymous heroine only to be soundly defeated by a mob of angry women. In another, a man under arrest makes several attempts to distract his Scythian guard and escape, finally succeeding with the help of a sexy dancer.^[4]

It is unlikely that the Scythian archers, despite their name, arrested citizens at arrow point. Rather, skill with a bow was a well-known Scythian stereotype and the name stuck.^[5] Some Scythians formed close relationships with Athenians and received Greek burial steles. The discovery of 80 arrowheads at a grave in Cerameicus suggests it may be for a police chief, perhaps killed in action.

6 The Mauryan Gops

India’s first empire was the Mauryan Empire, which ruled the subcontinent from 321 to 185 BC. Their military and civil service were the envy of the ancient world.^[6] Each town had a nagarik, a police chief, with officers (Gops) at his command. Though appointed by the emperor, they were watched closely by local leaders known as Gramini. Police stations served as a local jail, a lost-and-found, and a census bureau.

In addition to keeping the citizens safe, the Gops were omnipresent spies for the state. Anyone entering the city had to be meticulously recorded and their whereabouts watched. Regular patrols of neighborhoods ensured everyone’s activities were known by the police, and any suspicious people were arrested, even if they were innocent, so they didn’t have an opportunity to commit a crime.^[7]

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5 Judaean Shoterim

The Jewish occupants of ancient Judaea had a rigorous court system that held public safety in high regard. Every town had a judge, and the court employed two shoterim to carry out the court’s orders. Their duties included checking weights and measures for tampering, setting market prices, inspecting property boundaries, and dispensing charity. Their salaries were paid through local taxes.

Ancient Judea had a large number of public safety regulations that were strictly enforced. Dogs needed to be chained up, pits needed to be covered, and the sale of weapons was regulated. If a property owner had an unsafe structure or tree, they were issued a thirty-day warning to remove it. If anyone witnessed their neighbor in mortal danger, they had a legal obligation to help.^[8]

4 The Cadi of the Songhai Empire

The Songhai Empire was the largest ever in West Africa, so it needed a top-notch police force. Among its many, many government officials were the Cadi. These civil servants were appointed by the king to deal with local disputes. They decided which grievances got a tribunal, then presided over the tribunal and determined the punishment. If the crime was of interest to the public, a town crier would shout the latest news in the town center.

As servants of the king, the Cadi were always on the lookout for treason. Political offenses received the harshest punishments, with one low-level minister ending up sewn inside of a bull’s hide and burned alive.^[9]

3 Incan tokrikoq

The Incans of the modern-day South American coast ran a well-organized empire and were similarly meticulous with their legal system. Tradition dictated that an Incan subject accused of a crime could only be judged by someone of a higher rank, so the local tokrikoq (which literally translates to “he who sees all”) was the highest-ranking government official in the area. In addition to overseeing justice, the tokrikoq oversaw the census, land distribution, and the maintenance of public roads and bridges.^[10]

If the tokrikoq delivered a guilty verdict, imprisonment was not an option for the criminal. Incan punishment was meant to deter potential offenders, so all proceedings had to be as public as possible. Murder, rebellion, adultery, drunkenness, and laziness could all be punished by death via stoning, hanging, or getting thrown off a cliff. Minor crimes were given a public scolding.^[11]

2 Ancient Roman Vigiles

The Roman Empire tried many different kinds of law and order throughout their long rule of the Mediterranean. The Praetorian Guard and the Cohorts Urbanes guarded the emperor and the cities, but petty crimes and firefighting were left to the Vigiles.

In 21 BC, Roman senator Marcus Egnatious Rufus received overwhelming praise for ordering his slaves to respond to fires anywhere in the city, not just the homes of the rich. Emperor Augustus promptly decided no one could be liked more than him and created Rome’s first public firefighting force.

Since the Vigiles were already patrolling the city at night in search of fires, they became police officers as well. Their job included capturing robbers and runaway slaves and guarding the public baths. In addition to firefighting gear, they wore light armor and carried whips or staffs as weapons.^[12] (

1 Igbo Okonko

The Igbo, or Ibo, are an ethnic group that still lives in modern-day southern Nigeria. Though united by language and common beliefs, the ancient Igbo conducted justice on a village level. Criminal punishment was the responsibility of the family head except in the most heinous crimes; in those cases, the only way to shield the community from divine wrath was to dedicate the criminal to a life of religious service.^[13]

In some parts of Igboland, a secret society called Okonko brought the village’s wealthy and powerful men together. Boys were initiated in early childhood, but only adults were allowed to learn their secrets. Since the penalty for members lying or acting shamefully was death, abused women felt safe seeking their help. At meetings, every aspect of village rule was discussed, including crime prevention and justice. Some meetings included holding court was held for accused criminals. Land disputes were settled by placing the society’s symbol, a sacred palm frond, over the disputed land until a verdict was reached.^[14]

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When the police get in the news these days it’s almost never for a good reason. Over 1,000 people per year are shot by police. There’s also evidence police have seized nearly $70 billion since the year 2000 from ordinary citizens through the process of civil asset forfeiture whether the people are criminals or not. If that weren’t enough, there’s also evidence that the police will on occasion, fabricate or plant evidence in order to frame innocent people for crimes or to cover their own mistakes. 

10. The FBI Framed 4 Men for Murder

Law enforcement rely on informants for information. Often these are criminals themselves who are in and around other criminals and are willing to share information with law enforcement in exchange for money or leniency when it comes to being punished for their own crimes. But just how valuable should an informant be? 

Joseph Salvati was imprisoned for 29 years because the FBI framed him for a murder he didn’t commit. They did this to protect the real culprit, a man named Jimmy “the Bear” Flemmi. Flemmi was an FBI mob informant, and they didn’t want to risk losing the information he provided to them so when Edward Deegan was killed in 1965,the FBI had Flemmi and others gives false testimony to convict Salvati and several others for the crime. 

Two of the convicted men died in prison, and a third was released in 2001. The convictions were overturned after a journalist discovered secret FBI memos that had never been revealed during the trial. They revealed that Flemmi was the true killer and an informant and that a key witness, another hitman, was lying but helping them on other cases so they let it slide.

The government awarded Salvati and the others $101.8 million for the frame job. The FBI’s lawyers argued they were working at a federal level and the trial was state so they had no obligation to share information and the convictions weren’t their fault. The judge disagreed. 

9. Sheriff Joe Arpaio Framed a Man for Attempted Murder

Infamous Maricopa County sheriff Joe Arpaio made news for years as a result of his PR stunts which included making inmates in his jails wear pink, eat horrible food, work in chain gangs and more. His office was also known to botch serious criminal investigations included child abuse and sexual assaults. For all of his dozens of controversial acts it’s maybe no wonder that framing people for crimes was among them.

James Saville spent four years in prison for trying to build a bomb to kill Arpaio. A jury found that he had been entrapped by Arpaio and his sheriffs who arranged the entire thing as a PR stunt. The man who showed Saville how to build the bomb was a cop who not only paid for all the parts, he drove Saville to stores to pick them up.  The media was waiting when he drove Saville to where he was ultimately arrested. Basically, they arranged the entire scheme and made Saville the fall guy.

Saville sued, and the county settled for just over one million dollars.

8. James Dennis Was Sent to Death Row After Being Framed

James Dennis was sentenced to death for the murder of a high school student back in 1991. After 25 years in jail he was finally exonerated after courts determined Dennis had not committed the crime but had instead been framed by the police. 

The conviction was vacated in 2013 and affirmed on appeals in 2016. It was determined that police and the prosecution had withheld key evidence during his trial to secure their conviction. That includes confessions from witnesses laying the blame on someone else as well as hiding some witnesses and coercing others. Witnesses claimed three men had committed the crime and Dennis didn’t match the description of any of them. A man actually confessed and gave details about the crime and his accomplices, but the police never shared this information with the defense.

Dennis went on to sue the two detectives who framed him, plus the city. The defense offered by the police was that they didn’t do anything wrong but, even if they did, how were they to know that hiding some evidence was a violation of Dennis’ rights? 

7. Jamal Trulove was Framed for Murder and Got 50 Years

Jamal Trulove was convicted of a 2007 murder and sentenced to 50 years in prison. He was retried in 2015 and then acquitted for the crime, after which he sued the city of San Francisco, the result of which was a stunning $13.1 million settlement thanks to just how badly the police handled the case.

Police had coerced a witness to testify that Trulove was the killer while also hiding other evidence that proved he was innocent. The detectives on the case showed witnesses photos of Trulove but no one else. This only came to light because, when the police were telling the witness that it was Trulove, another suspect for a different crime was in the room and overheard. The cops would then pay the woman $63,000 to help her move. They had also learned of other suspects and didn’t bother following up on them. In the end, though Trulove won the settlement, the cops just retired, and no one was punished.

6. Cops Beat a Murder Confession Out of an Armenian Man

Armenian Armen Poghosyan spent five and a half years in prison on a 15 year conviction for the rape and murder of a child. He was released only when the actual murderer was caught. Initially, Poghosyan confessed to the crime after being subject to abuse from officers during their questioning. Official documents state that he was beaten and at one point an officer boxed his ears so forcefully his eardrum exploded. They forced him to sit on a glass bottle and made him listen as they beat his brother in another room. 

After his conviction was overturned, he was awarded 6.2 million Armenian dollars in compensation which works out to about $15,000.

5. Cops Planted a Rifle Shell to Convict Arthur Allan Thomas of Murder

Some people are so committed to lies they’ll do anything to support them and that was the unfortunate case with the frame job of Arthur Allan Thomas, a man who spent 9 years in prison for a murder he didn’t commit. He was even convicted twice for the crime.

Thomas was convicted of a double homicide in 1970. This conviction was thrown out after it was revealed police had taken a shell from Thoma’s rifle and planted it in the garden of the victim to tie him to the crime scene. Forensics had been unable to rule Thoma’s rifle out, but nor could they confirm his weapon was used, so the police put a shell in the garden weeks later, after having custody of the rifle, and then discovered it to clinch their arrest. 

It was the shell casing in specific that helped get Thomas released as the police had searched the garden in August but the shell was found in October just one week after police got custody of the rifle. Despite the conviction being tossed out and Thomas getting a one million dollar settlement, none of the police involved were ever held accountable.  

4. Police in New Orleans Planted a Gun on Shooting Victims

Six days after Hurricane Katrina in 2005, police got into what they claimed was a shootout on the Danziger Bridge in New Orleans. Two civilians died and four more were injured. Police long claimed the killings were justified because they were returning fire and defending themselves from attack. That turned out to be untrue. In reality, the police fired unprovoked at their victims who weren’t even armed and then engaged in a conspiracy to cover it up after the fact, framing the dead men as attackers.

Officers agreed to falsify documents and witness statements after the shooting because they knew it wasn’t justified. Later, a gun was planted on the scene and tied to one of the victims to support the lie and an entire fake witness was made up to corroborate the police story. This led to two officers being charged and pleading guilty later on. 

3. Atlanta Cops Killed a Grandmother Then Planted Drugs on Her

You would hope that, if the police are going to raid a home to catch criminals, they would do their due diligence to ensure they’re raiding the right home. Far too often that turns out to not necessarily be the case, but sometimes it can get even worse. 

In 2006, Atlanta police raided the home of a 92-year-old woman in what was meant to be a drug raid. They shot Kathryn Johnston five times, and she died. There were, of course, no drugs. Cops did plant marijuana on the scene, however, and submitted cocaine afterwards as evidence of drugs they’d bought in the house prior to the raid.

Evidence after the fact showed that documents had been falsified to suggest drugs were on the site. Other court documents claimed that police in the city had made a habit of lying to obtain warrants in addition to fabricating evidence of drug deals. 

Three officers ended up going to jail for their part in the death and coverup, though they only got between five and ten years in total.

2. Police Doctored Witness Statements to Convict a New Zealand Man

Alan Hall spent 19 years in prison for a murder he didn’t commit in New Zealand. Witnesses saw a man at the scene who looked nothing like Hall. They claimed the man had been Maori, but police removed that part because Hall was white. Other witnesses also claimed the man had dark skin, was much taller than Hall, was right-handed while Hall was a lefty, and was muscular while Hall was thin. He didn’t match a single part of the description. Police also noted that they believed Hall might have had an intellectual disability but continued questioning him anyway without a lawyer. Years later it was determined that Hall is autistic. 

 He was convicted in 1986 and the prosecution had been aware since 1988 that police had doctored the witness statement but did nothing about it. It was not until 2022 that the Supreme Court finally tossed out the conviction and eliminated any hope of appealing the decision that Hall and his family finally got to end their fight. 

1. A Florida Police Chief Arrested Innocent People To Boost His Arrest Stats

People often accuse police of writing traffic tickets to meet quotas and that’s not entirely incorrect. Cops also like to clear a certain percentage of arrests to make them look efficient and in Biscayne Park, Florida police were willing to frame innocent people to keep their stats perfect. 

A 16-year-old boy was framed for multiple burglaries by the police chief and his officers who arrested and charged the boy with four crimes despite there being no evidence he was involved. 

The chief would later say he was just under too much pressure and wanted to impress other officials by having a perfect arrest record. So they just started arresting whoever they felt like and blaming them for crimes. This means blaming black people for crimes in white neighborhoods. The 16-year-old was just one of several. He even bragged about how good his department was doing publicly.

After he was caught, the chief was sentenced to three years in prison. Charges against the boy were dropped.