Northwest of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon), in the Cu Chi district, the remains of an intricate underground network tell the story of the human imperative to survive. Once spanning tens of thousands of miles, these extensive tunnels were dug by the Communist Viet Cong during the Vietnam War.

Used as secret hideouts, living spaces, and supply routes, the Cu Chi tunnels and surrounding area became the most aggressively targeted region by enemy forces. Here, relentless bombing, gassing, and soldier infiltration devastated the land and vegetation, forcing entire villages underground. In spite of their circumstances, the Viet Cong maintained land possession and defeated foreign intrusion with tactics that had never been seen before.

10Underground Digging

In the darkness of night, men and women of all ages dug the great network of tunnels by hand with little more than rudimentary tools. For digging in soft earth (post-wet season) the simple hoe could suffice, while crowbars took the brunt of hard ground and rock. Remarkably, soil and excavated material would be carried out of tunnels in bamboo baskets and plastic bags. All traces of digging had to be carefully dispersed to keep the tunnel sites covert. Bomb craters and rivers became dumping grounds in many locations.^[1]

Though tunnel excavation originally took place close to the surface of the ground, over time, artillery and bombings forced the Viet Cong to dig deeper and deeper, 10 meters subsurface. Underground networks became more expansive and complex as hospitals, dorms, workshops, meeting rooms, kitchens, and bathrooms were needed. Ultimately, all necessary facets of village life could be found within the tunnels.

9Tunnel Levels

The tunnels were cleverly organized into four levels at varying depths. The first level, at three to four meters below ground, housed traps, ventilation shafts, and firing posts. Descending further to the second level, you would find kitchens and sleeping chambers. Withstanding mortar attacks at 6 to 7 meters subsurface, the third level gave way to aid stations, storage, and tunnel connections.^[2]

At its amazing depth of eight to 10 meters, the fourth level tapped into the tunnel’s water sources. Water played a vital role in the survival of the Viet Cong living in the tunnels. Not only were wells dug to provide suitable drinking water, but also each tunnel led to the Saigon River. During low tide, the Viet Cong used this tunnel-river connection as a bathroom of sorts. This waterway also served, in emergency situations, as an escape route.

8Ventilation

To survive the extreme lack of oxygen underground, Viet Cong forces channeled air through widely dispersed holes in the earth. With this technique, they accommodated thousands of soldiers within the underground layer.

Accounts from the Viet Cong soldiers describe scenarios in which they were forced to remain underground for weeks at a time. By lying on the tunnel floor and limiting breathing, precious air was rationed. During such times, ventilation became the most important factor in survival.^[3]

7Community Life

As with all components of their village life, surviving brutal tunnel conditions depended on a strong communal mentality. Withstanding dire food shortages, communities were sometimes left to eat stale rice, grass, and even drink their own urine.^[4]

Women, children, and able persons of all ages were taught to contribute and fight in the tunnels. Yet, their lives weren’t only summarized by defense and combat. At times, bombs dropped overhead, while laughter permeated tunnel walls. Song, dance, and drama performers toured the tunnels, “a gun in one hand, guitar in the other.” Throughout the gloom of war, the Viet Cong managed to create moments of joy, uplifting village moral and fostering group solidarity.

6Recycled American Weaponry

To overcome major disadvantages in their caliber of weaponry and technology, the Viet Cong diligently collected waste materials and supplies left by the Americans.

Detonated bombs were gathered for metal repurposing—the shrapnel was sold, and earnings were used to supply food to the tunnel dwellers. Detonators themselves were repaired and reused in combat.^[5] Consequently, the Viet Cong ingeniously fought the American forces with their own weapons.

5Scent Concealment

In addition to weapons, American soap, uniforms, and belongings were stolen and reused for the purpose of diverting American and German sniff dogs. Viet Cong soldiers placed these items in ventilation holes and surrounding entranceways to confuse war canines into thinking they were the traces of friendly American soldiers.

While allowing breathing air, small ventilation channels were also designed to disperse cooking smoke and burning firewood. Strategically hidden at the base of trees, within thick grasses, and even in termite nests, these holes were very difficult to detect.^[6]

4Secret Entrance Ways

To surprise American soldiers from the rear, Viet Cong fighters would spot Allied troops passing one location then creep up and attack from a closer passageway. American soldiers were often tricked by the Viet Cong’s gunshots, which seemed to be coming from the edge of forests. In actuality, the shots were emerging from secret entrances, deep within the brush.^[7]

These hidden entrance ways also allowed Viet Cong soldiers to quickly vanish belowground to safety when under attack. During the night, the Viet Cong would even sneak out of various tunnels that surrounded American bases, stealing ammunition, weapons, and food.

3Narrow Tunnel Walls

Body size became a key advantage for the slender Viet Cong, who could slip easefully underground through their tiny entranceways and tunnel walls. Wide-bodied Americans would invariably get stuck in these tight enclosures. Over time, smaller-bodied “Tunnel Rats” were trained within the American forces, to follow the Viet Cong into their tunnels. But, outsmarted once again, Tunnel Rats were then met with a series of U-turns and narrow twists in which they quickly became disoriented.

The tunnel walls were even so narrow that the long M1 American rifles would become lodged, trapping the American soldier or forcing him to retreat with his rifle firing in the wrong direction.^[8]

2Underground Hospitals

Overcoming major supply shortages underground, subsurface hospitals resourcefully fashioned blood infusions with bicycle pumps and empty bottles. With such devices, a patient’s own blood was bottle-collected then reintroduced into the body using the pump and a rubber hose. Such rudimentary aid stations were operated by torchlight, fashioned out of repurposed shrapnel.

While pharmaceutical medicine was purchased on the black market, herbal remedies and acupuncture were also commonly administered.^[9]

1Booby Traps

Positioned at ground level and within the tunnels, “Punji traps” are the most iconic booby-traps used by the Viet Cong. Harvested from their native forests, durable bamboo sticks sharpened like arrow heads were staked, sharp end up, in crude dugouts. They were camouflaged to look like the forest floor, and unsuspecting enemy soldiers would misstep and fall to their bloody doom.^[10]

Other Punji traps were not necessarily aimed to kill but rather to slow enemy troops, sometimes to a halt. Here, the sides of a dugout held bamboo stakes pointing in a downward angle. A soldier accidentally stepping into a pit would become pinned by the leg and require comrades to tend to the situation.

Smeared in a concoction of poisonous plants, frog innards, and even feces, these bamboo punji sticks could cause severe infection in the victim soldier.

Lauren ventures into the wild teaching primitive skills, crafting journals, and quenching her insatiable curiosity! Co-founder, writer, and photographer for OnWords Collective.

Manners and Tone of Good Society (1879), the seminal guide to Victorian dining, outlined how to navigate around the vast array of cutlery and serveware in the Victorian age. Touching food with bare hands was not acceptable behavior.

So everyone had to learn to recognize all the different accompaniments to the usual dinner service, such as asparagus servers, marrow scoops, and grape scissors. Oh, and you had to know how to use them as well.

How do you think you would manage if you sat down to a lovely meal and saw any of the items below? Would you be the toast of the town or commit a gastronomic faux pas?

10 Sugar Nips

Sugar was brought to the grocer in cone shapes called “sugar loaves.” Mountains and hats were often named after them due to their distinctive shape. In wealthy households, the mistress of the house would cut up the loaf using sugar nippers to break the hard substance into smaller, usable parts for the table. Only the mistress would do this as sugar was expensive and kept in boxes under lock and key.

The sugar nips were tongs with a flat surface at the end suitable for lifting pieces of sugar. But they were also sturdy and tough. Nips used for cutting were often made from steel, but decorative tongs for table use were often made from silver with elaborate engravings.^[1]

9 Snail Forks

In Victorian England, the lower classes ate snails regularly. These were affectionately called “wall fish” and were served to locals in pubs like the Royal Oak in Shepton Mallet. Eating snails wasn’t only for the upper classes or the French as most people tend to think today.

The snail would be held in one hand, with or without a napkin, and the snail meat would be plucked out of the shell with the other. Delicious!

While one might not have made a full living doing so, a man in Bristol in Victorian times known as “Snailer Jack” sold snails as snack food. People would eat them to ward against—or even cure—tuberculosis. They were also reputed to have a particular property that strengthened the lungs . . . but only if eaten raw.^[2]

Fancy a snail?

8 Marrow Scoops

Picture this scene if you will. You are a Victorian man or woman at a posh dinner party, and your host’s servants present a glorious roast on the table in front of you. You can’t wait to dig in.

But wait! How can you get the delicious marrow out of the bone without offending your host with caveman-like, bone-sucking behavior? A common problem, we know.

In this situation, it’s best to handle your marrow scoop with the narrow, elongated end directed toward the bone.^[3] Scoop out all the marrow you can, and enjoy the envy of your fellow guests as they are forced to leave their bones on the plate.

As identified by the Leeds Museum, the image above shows a marrow scoop from the late 19th century. Marrow scoops from the mid-1700s (which predate the Victorian era) have a longer, narrower shape.

7 Spoon Warmer

Victorian houses were only heated by fires in each room, so the kitchen was often some distance from where the family would actually sit down to eat. As the food was brought to the table, the cutlery would cool down. In turn, this would cause the food to cool faster when it was eaten.

To avoid this problem, the Victorians invented the spoon warmer. A vessel, often with feet, was filled with hot water, and the spoons were inserted into the opening. Warm spoons helped to prevent rich and fatty gravy from congealing on the plates.

Victorian spoon warmers can rarely be found today. Those lucky enough to spot one might find playful designs such as a snail shell sitting on rocks, an egg-shaped oval on little feet, frogs and fish with open mouths, helmets, or hunting horns. As time went on and homes were better heated, these little devices fell out of fashion. But they remain a delightful reminder of Victorian creativity when it came to dining room etiquette.^[4]

6 Caddy Spoons

In the 1760s, the caddy spoon was created as a unique and beautiful accessory for preparing tea in Europe and America. Tea leaves were kept in a tea caddy, a special box designed to keep the leaves fresh and attractively presented. These were often locked at other times as tea was an expensive and precious commodity.

A caddy spoon, which could fit inside the caddy, was used to measure out a portion of tea leaves for the teapot. Certain shapes of shells, shovels, or ladles were made by Victorian silversmiths. As time marched into the 20th century, these accessories were decorated with local scenes, crests, or place names particular to the area and owners’ tastes.

One of the most valuable caddy spoons was sold at auction in 1931 for over £2,000. Designed by Omar Ramsden, his art nouveau spoon was inlaid with semiprecious stones with a knotwork handle.^[5]

5 Asparagus Server

Asparagus was introduced to English society in the 16th century. But it was not until the 18th century that it became a fashionable and exotic addition to meals. Eating asparagus was the height of elegance and sophistication, so what better to serve this de rigueur vegetable than a pair of asparagus servers?

One might wonder what all the fuss was about and why a spoon and fork would not have done just as well. But the Victorians decided that they needed slightly less clumsy apparatus for fine dining.

Silver asparagus tongs are a captivating item that reminds us of a more elegant era. They are still quite useful today if you wish to enjoy a spear or two for supper.^[6]

4 Knife Rest

When our Victorian friends sat down for dinner, there may have been up to 12 different courses! The knife rest was used to keep the single set of utensils clean between courses.

Probably, the knife rest helped to prevent the tablecloth from becoming soiled between courses rather than merely saving the servants the extra trouble of washing more utensils. Most households certainly would not have changed cutlery between courses.

The first knife rests used at the time of Henry VIII would have been made of wood. But as the Victorians always liked to take things one step further, theirs were made from every metal you can think of as well as crystal and glass, pottery, mother-of-pearl, ivory, and horn.^[7]

3 Grape Scissors

These scissors were often decorated with vines and grape designs as they were used to cut a stalk of grapes in the dessert course. Only then were you permitted to use your hands. In Victorian society, there were only rare occasions when dining etiquette would permit the use of hands at the table—for example, when eating fruit or bread.

In a rather clever design quirk, the handles were longer than the blades so that the grape enthusiast could cut deep into the bunch and select the number of grapes he wanted. The blunt ends prevented the fruit from being pierced. These scissors were made of silver to prevent any tarnishing and to last for many years.^[8]

2 Aspic Spoon

The Victorians could not get enough of aspic. For those fortunate few who have not come across aspic, it is a jelly made from gelatin and the stock from meat, poultry, or fish. Other foods, such as eggs or meat, are suspended throughout the mixture.

Aspic stopped the meats within the gelatin from becoming spoiled by preventing contact with the air and any lurking bacteria. This was perfect for the Victorians, who had not yet invented refrigeration. An aspic spoon featured a long bowl at one end that had one sharpened side to help cut through suspended, more solid objects in the jelly.^[9]

1 Crumb Scoop And Tray

The Victorians were a clean and tidy lot who thought nothing was worse than seeing all the crumbs left on the tablecloth following a meal. So they invented the crumb scoop.

Arriving in the 1850s, this ingenious device was used by the servants to clear the tablecloth of any meal detritus, including breadcrumbs, salad leaves, and anything else that missed both mouths and plates. Crumb scoops were commonly made of silver and could be highly decorated with engravings of floral motifs. The scoop handle was made of bone, ivory, mother-of-pearl, ivorine, or wood.^[10]

Alexa lives in Ireland and loves writing about psychology, sociology, anthropology, and anything historical.

In war, strategy is everything. A single well-executed maneuver can be the difference between victory and defeat. This was certainly the case with the Trojan Horse, a brilliant tactical move that allowed the Greeks to take control of Troy. But, while the story of the Trojan horse may be a thing of fiction, the use of wacky but clever ploys in war is not.

Here is a list of some of the most clever deceptive tactics that have been used in war throughout history.

10 Fake Paris in World War 1

Paris is a city rich with history that stretches back centuries. But during World War I, German bomber planes flying by night were an imminent threat to the iconic landmarks of the French capital. The French came up with a pretty ingenious plan to build a fake Paris replica out of wood and canvas, complete with lights, so that it would fool the German pilots at night.

The decoy city would be located just outside the real Paris, and it would be designed to confuse and lure the German pilots away from their true target. Fortunately, the war ended shortly after construction began, so the plan was never fully realized. The story of the fake Paris is a reminder of the lengths that people will go to in times of war. It is also a testament to the power of human ingenuity and creativity, even in the face of adversity.^[1]

9 German City Does Not Go Dark to Avoid Bombing

Like France, German cities were also terrorized by nighttime air raids. In World War II, one German city called Konstanz, which sits near the border of Switzerland, was able to elude bombardment by refusing to turn out the lights after dark. In order to protect itself from nighttime air raids, German cities were forbidden from using any lights. Street lamps and buildings went dark, and citizens were not allowed to use candles and had to cover their windows with curtains or black paint.

On the other hand, their Swiss neighbors—who were neutral in WWII and thus not targeted by the Allies—remained illuminated at night. By keeping their lights on, Konstanz was able to fool the Allied forces into thinking they were part of Switzerland and managed to make it through the war mostly unscathed.^[2]

8 Ghost Army

If you think deception is an art, then the U.S. Army took it to new heights during World War II. They went so far as to gather a team of artists and audio experts to create an elaborate phantom military unit of inflatable tanks and phony sound effects and radio transmissions to fool the Nazis.

The 23rd Headquarters Special Troops, also known as the “Ghost Army,” was made up of around 1,100 soldiers who were tasked with creating lifelike dummy tanks, trucks, and artillery. They also played recorded sounds of battle to make it seem like there were more troops than there actually were. The bluff created a distraction that tied up enemy resources and preoccupied them with a military presence that wasn’t really there while the real Army maneuvered elsewhere.^[3]

7 Foiled Camisade During the War of 1812

During the war of 1812, one town on the coast of Maryland managed to fool the British during a nighttime siege. St. Michaels was a shipbuilding town targeted by British forces approaching via the Miles River. When an attack by the British became imminent, the townspeople decided to take action.

They placed lanterns in the treetops around the town, making it appear as though the town was at a higher elevation than it actually was. When the British rowed onto shore in the night, they were met with cannon fire by the Americans. This drove them back to their ships, from which they fired upon the town. Because they aimed at the lights in the trees they thought were windows and buildings, they ultimately shot over the town and failed to hit anything.^[4]

6 Army Builds a Fake Base to Fool Saddam Hussein

The Gulf War was fought in the early 1990s as a coalition of forces from more than 30 countries sought to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation. Before the first bombs fell on Baghdad in 1991, the U.S. military was engaged in a battle of wits with Saddam Hussein. The Iraqi dictator had invaded Kuwait and was dug in for a long occupation. In order to drive him out, the U.S.-led coalition needed to mount a surprise attack. But how could they keep Saddam guessing about their plans?

The answer was Forward Operating Base Weasel, a secret military base set up for the purpose of deceiving the Iraqi leader. By sending out false radio signals, including recorded Egyptian radio traffic about the Americans and planting bogus intelligence, the coalition was able to convince Saddam that the main attack would come from the south when in reality, it would be coming from the west. It was a daring plan, and it worked like a charm. Thanks to the brave men and women at Forward Operating Base Weasel, Saddam was caught off guard when the real attack came, and his forces were quickly routed.^[5]

5 Vietnam POW Plays Stupid to Deceive Captors

Douglas Brent Hegdahl III was only twenty years old when he was taken captive by the North Vietnamese during the Vietnam War. A Navy seaman, Hegdahl had been on a ship in the Gulf of Tonkin when he fell overboard and was picked up by a North Vietnamese fishing boat. Hegdahl was immediately taken prisoner and spent the next two years in captivity.

During that time, he developed a deep understanding of the Vietnamese language and culture. However, he was able to fool his captors into thinking he was stupid and harmless. He exaggerated his country accent and expressed a fascination with communism. As a result, he was treated relatively well and was dubbed “the incredibly stupid one.” He was allowed to roam the POW camp freely and would secretly sabotage the Vietnamese by doing things like putting dirt in gas tanks to disable them. He was eventually released as part of a prisoner exchange. After returning to the United States, Hegdahl was tapped for his knowledge about the Vietnamese as part of negotiations for ending the war.^[6]

4 Hannibal of Barca Tricks Romans

A trap is only as good as its bait, and when it comes to luring in his enemies, Hannibal of Barca is a master angler. In 216 BC, the Carthaginian commander found himself and his army cornered in a valley in Campania. Unfortunately, his army was situated in a valley with Romans guarding the only way out—a mountain pass.

Seeing no other way to escape, Hannibal took a herd of cattle and stampeded them toward the pass with flaming torches on their horns. The guards, thinking the cattle were Hannibal’s soldiers, rushed to confront them and his army safely slipped away under cover of night. It’s a story that has gone down in history as one of the most clever military maneuvers, and it’s a testament to Hannibal’s resourcefulness as a leader.^[7]

3 Operation Mincemeat

In 1943, British intelligence came up with an outlandish plan to deceive the Nazis that sounds straight out of a spy flick. The plan, codenamed Operation Mincemeat, involved planting false documents on the body of a dead man and releasing the body into the sea off the coast of Spain. The corpse was that of a homeless man but was given a fake identity to pass off as a dead British officer.

The hope was that the Germans would learn of the corpse and believe the contents of the phony documents attached to it. The plan was successful, and the Germans were led to believe that the Allies were going to invade Greece and Sardinia rather than Sicily. As a result, they diverted troops to these areas, which helped ensure the success of the Allied invasion of Sicily. Operation Mincemeat is now considered one of the most successful deceptions in military history.^[8]

2 Opium-Laced Cigarettes

In World War I, the British and the Ottomans were embroiled in a slow, drawn-out battle in the trenches. Eventually, the British learned that the Ottomans had run out of cigarettes, at which point they sent packs to the enemy. However, the action was far from altruistic as they also attached propaganda in an attempt to demoralize and taunt their adversaries.

The Ottomans willingly took the smokes but defiantly discarded the propaganda, showing no intention to surrender. The British prepared to raid the enemy but, before doing so, sent over more cigarettes, this time laced with opium. By the time the British launched their attack, it was an easy victory as their enemy was too strung out to put up much of a fight.^[9]

1 Cats on the Battlefield

Back in 525 BC, a war was waged between the Persians and Egyptians. In the battle of Pelusium, the battle-tested Persian leader Cambyses II was able to get the best of Egypt’s young inexperienced pharoah, Psametik III. In Egyptian culture, cats and other animals were held as sacred. Cambyses II knew this, and according to ancient accounts, he had his army show up to battle with images of cats painted on their shields.

Additionally, Persian forces released a large number of cats, dogs, and sheep onto the frontlines. The Egyptians were fearful of causing harm to these animals and were so alarmed at the sight of Persian soldiers throwing cats at them that they fled in panic. As a result, many Egyptians were slain in the process, and the Persians were able to take control of Egypt with relative ease.^[10]