How was it possible that slavery was so central in a society where individual freedom was so highly valued? This is one of the many paradoxes of ancient Greece . . . or maybe it’s not a paradox but a reflection of the fact that we can only value things based on contrast. Perhaps it was because of the fundamental role of slavery that ancient Greeks came to value individual freedom so much. This list presents 10 interesting facts linked to slavery in ancient Greece.

10 Slave Population

There are no reliable figures available on the slave population in ancient Greece. Some scholars have made educated guesses, but the slave population varied significantly across different regions of Greece.

Modern estimations suggest that in Attica (Athens and its vicinity) from 450 to 320 BC, there were roughly 100,000 slaves. The total population of the region was around 250,000, which would give us a slave-to-free ratio of about 2:5. Other, more general estimates state that between 15 and 40 percent of the ancient Greek population were slaves in various regions at different times.

9 Slave Procurement

A large number of slaves were prisoners of war, usually part of the booty seized by the victorious army. One famous example comes from Philip II of Macedon (Alexander the Great’s father), who sold 20,000 women and children into slavery after the invasion of Scythia in 339 BC. The connection between war booty and slave procurement was so tight that slave traders sometimes joined the armies during their campaigns so they could buy the prisoners immediately after they were captured.

Other streams of slave procurement included piracy, debt, and even barbarian tribes who were willing to exchange their own people for specific goods. Trading posts also acted as big suppliers of slaves for Greece. Many of these were located around the Black Sea, and some cities such as Byzantium and Ephesus also had big slave markets.

8 Slave Occupations

In Athens, making a living by working for others was perceived negatively. State employment was the only form of wage labor free from this prejudice. Since most free citizens avoided wage labor as much as they could, slaves were used to fill the workforce gaps. As a result, saves could perform a wide range of jobs in ancient Greece.

We know of slaves being employed as cooks, craftsmen, maids, miners, nurses, porters, and even in the army as attendants to their masters, baggage carriers, and sometimes as fighters. Some specific public positions were performed by slaves, the most famous example being (surprisingly) the police in Athens, which, at least during part of the fifth and fourth centuries BC, consisted mostly of Scythian slaves.

7 Slave Ownership

Owning slaves was a fairly common practice in ancient Greece. A middle-class family might have had between three and 12 slaves, but those numbers are just estimations by scholars and hard to verify. The number of slaves varied according to time and place.

In his work Ecclesiazusae, Aristophanes equates not owning any slaves to a sign of poverty. The two major owners of slaves in ancient Greece were the state, where slaves were employed as police and various other public functions, and also wealthy businessmen, who supplied slaves for working in the mines.

6 Versatile Lifestyles

There were different types of slaves in ancient Greece, and their living conditions and expectations were strongly linked to their occupations. The most unfortunate were the slaves involved in mining, who were condemned to a miserable life and almost certainly an early death.

However, not all slaves were doomed to suffer cruelty and abuse, and some could expect a more or less decent living. Slaves specialized as craftsmen, for example, could work and live separately from their masters and could engage in commerce and generate income, though a portion of what they earned had to go to their masters’ pockets. Spartan slaves (helots) could enjoy family life. State slaves in the Athenian army who died during combat were even honored with a state funeral, the same as free citizens.

5 Slaves And Craft Production

During Classical times, the booming Athenian craft production industry forced many workshops to evolve into factories. Slave labor was the dominant workforce in many prominent factories, most of which belonged to wealthy politicians.

We have records of two factories owned by Demosthenes that were largely supported by slaves. One of these factories produced swords and had about 30 slaves, while the other used 20 slaves and produced couches. Lysias, the famous writer, owned the largest production center we have on record, a shield factory which had 120 slaves.

4 Slaves And Mining

Mining has always been a highly profitable activity, and ancient Greece was no exception. The profits from mining were as immense as the risks of working in the mines. It’s no wonder that the Athenians employed slaves for a job so dangerous.

Large profits were made not only from the actual mining activity, but also by those who could supply slave labor. We know that the politician and general Nicias (fifth century BC) supplied as many as 1,000 slaves to work in the mines, making 10 talents a year, an income equivalent to 33 percent on his capital.

The fate of slaves working in the mines was precarious. Many of them worked underground in shackles, deprived from sunlight and fresh air. In 413 BC, an Athenian army was captured during a disastrous expedition to Sicily, and all 7,000 Athenian prisoners were forced to work in the quarries of Syracuse. Not one of them survived.

3 Slaves And Freedom

Some slaves could hope to gain their freedom. It was possible mainly for those in a position of saving money, especially those who where involved in wage labor and therefore had some degree of financial autonomy. Slaves who were able to save enough money could buy their freedom by paying their masters an agreed sum. We also know of slaves employed in the army who were granted their freedom as a reward for their service.

At Delphi, many inscriptions displaying the names of slaves who bought their freedom have been found. They illustrate the diverse array of regions from which the slave were procured: Caria, Egypt, Lydia, Phoenicia, Syria, and many other countries appear.

2 Helots

The helots were Greeks reduced to servitude by the Spartans. Their exact origin is unclear, but some accounts claim that they had been the inhabitants of a place called Helos, which was conquered by the Spartans. With every new conquest, the number of helots increased.

The helots were occupied as farmers, house servants, and any other activity that would distract the Spartan citizens from their military duties. There was constant tension between the helots and the Spartans. They were treated in humiliating ways and constantly intimidated. They had to wear a cap made of dog skin and a leather tunic. It was agreed that the helots should be beaten an agreed number of strokes every year, regardless of any transgression they might have committed, so they would not forget that they were slaves.

Sparta had a secret police (the Crypteia), responsible for keeping the Helots in check. Plutarch (Life of Lycurgus 28) wrote that the Crypteia would kill any helot found in the countryside during the night. During the day, they would kill any helot who looked strong and fit.

1 Rational Justifications

While we might have objections to the practice of slavery, ancient Greek society did not seem to share our concerns against human exploitation. Slavery was not only accepted as a normal institution, but there were also a number of justifications for it.

Aristotle wrote that some people were simply born to be slaves, while others were born to rule the slaves, a doctrine known as “natural slavery” (Politics 1, 1253b15–55b40). Slavery, Aristotle said, was a good thing for slaves, for without masters, slaves would not know how to live their lives. He also saw slaves as “animate tools”—pieces of property to be used, with no rights other than those granted by their masters.

+ Further Reading

Ancient Greece, the source of western learning and history. And the source of many lists:

10 Bizarre Sex Facts From The Ancient World
10 Things You Didn’t Know About Greek Mythology
10 Myths And Untold Facts About Ancient Greece And Rome
10 Common Misconceptions About the Ancient Greeks

Even today, horoscopes can be found in most newspapers, fortune tellers are present in every town and city, and many of us avoid walking under ladders (just in case). The rational Greeks were as superstitious as we are, and perhaps even more so. They left hundreds of writings and other material evidence behind attesting to how magic and superstition affected them in their daily life.

10Necromancy

Necromancy is about invoking the spirit of the dead for divinatory purposes and to get their help in magical affairs. In ancient Greece, people condemned necromancy publicly yet seemed to have accepted in private.

The amount of evidence on necromancy in ancient Greece is overwhelming. One of the earliest recorded examples comes from the Odyssey, where Odysseus performs a complicated ritual to contact the spirits of the dead by combining sacrifices, prayers, and offerings. Other literary evidence comes from Plato, who sounds skeptical about necromancy. Herodotus describes a necromantic ritual performed on the river Acheron where the Oracle of the dead is consulted by a messenger of Periander, the Tyrant of Corinth.

Material evidence on necromancy has been found on hundreds of inscribed curse tablets, placed in graves (along with other objects such as figurines) and asking the spirits of the dead for their aid.

9Superstition And Mathematics

The square root of 2 is an irrational number (i.e., it cannot be expressed by any simple fraction). When the Pythagoreans came across this seemingly harmless information, it undermined the very core of their beliefs. Mathematics, for the Pythagoreans, was inseparable from mysticism and religious life, and the structure of the cosmos was believed to be linked to mathematical harmony.

The Pythagoreans tried to keep this issue secret, but one of member divulged it outside the brotherhood. The traitor was thrown into deep waters and drowned. Many authors describe this person as early martyr to science. A case could be made that this person was a martyr of superstition, since it was not the scientific aspect of irrational numbers that motivated the homicide but rather its religious extrapolations.

8Concoctions

Recipes for all kinds of concoctions were known to the ancient Greeks. Their functions were truly diverse, and many were both amusing and useless.

To make a woman fart uncontrollably: “Take some hairs from a donkey’s rump, burn them and grind them up, and then give them to a woman in a drink.”

How to become invisible: “Engrave a quail on an onyx stone with a sea perch at its feet [and] put under the stone some of the mixture used in lamps. Smear your face with the concoction, and no one will see either who you are or what you are doing.”

To make a woman confess the name of the man she loves: “Put a bird’s tongue under her lips or on her heart and ask the question. She will say his name three times.”

7A Living Goddess

Peisistratos was tyrant who ruled Athens several times during the sixth century BC. According to Herodotus, Peisistratos regained the power of Athens in one occasion by taking a tall and beautiful peasant girl and dressing her as the goddess Athena, wearing her armor and riding a chariot into the city.

Peisistratos rode next to the girl. Meanwhile, a group of heralds announced that the goddess was bringing Peisistratos back to take control of the city. The trick worked, and Athens became under the rule of this clever tyrant.

6Animal Sacrifices

Oxen, goats, and sheep were the top choices for animal sacrifices in ancient Greece, but there were also some unconventional choices. According to Plutarch, puppies were sacrificed by the Spartans to honor the war god Enyalius

Sometimes, animal sacrifices went out of control, like it did after the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. Xenophon reported that the Athenians promised the goddess Artemis that they would sacrifice one goat in her honor for every enemy they killed. Herodotus reports that the Athenians killed 6,400 enemies during the battle, and there were simply not enough goats. Instead, the Athenians agreed to perform a ritual every year in which they would sacrifice 500 goats to Artemis. Xenophon’s report said this ritual was still observed 100 years after Marathon.

5Amulets

The belief in the magical properties of amulets was shared by many in Greece. Farmers, constantly worried about the weather, were especially vulnerable to deposit their hopes in the magic properties these items. Many of them wore amulets around their necks or wrists to ensure the right level of rainfall for their crops to prosper.

Other properties of amulets included: to keep way robbers, good luck, contraception, to attract a lover, and to protect its wearer from spells and harmful magic aimed against. Some had curious shapes which enhanced their power, which included Egyptian crabs, hands making obscene gestures, phalluses, eyes, and vulvas.

4Magic Spells

Spell have been found inscribed on numerous tablets all over ancient Greece. Many were linked to medical practices, either to help someone get better, improve the efficiency of medicines, or even to poison or harm enemies. Although spells ware mainly spoken, it was believed that their efficiency would increase if they were supported by specific actions such as inscribing the words and using images of humans, animals, demons, and mystical symbols.

Thessaly was one region strongly linked to witchcraft. Literary sources suggest that professional witches in this area were in the business of selling spells tailored to their customer’s specification. Aristophanes describes one of his characters, Strepsiades, thinking about contacting the Thessalian witches so he could buy a spell from them. Strepsiades was in debt, and his idea was to trap the Moon using one of this spells. If the Moon did not rise again, the monthly interest of his debt could not keep building.

3Oracles

Oracles in ancient Greece could mean two closely related things: a statement made by different deities (some of which could come through an intermediary), or the sites where such statements were made. Many of these statements were responses to human questions. Some would be simply “yes” or “no,” while some other could come in a cryptic or ambiguous form.

The oracle of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus is one of the oldest Greek oracles. During the fifth century BC, the priestesses spoke on behalf of the god Zeus and provided affirmative or negative answers to questions inscribed on lead tablets. About 80 of such tablets survive to our days and can be found in the museum at Ioannina in Greece. A few examples:

“Lysanias asks Zeus and Dione whether he is the father of the boy borne by Annyla.”

“Cleoutas asks Zeus and Dione if it is profitable and beneficial for him to graze sheep.”

2Astrology

Astrology influenced the Greek mind in two ways: either by claiming that planetary behavior had an inescapable influence on human affairs, or by acting as a guideline in relation to human personalities and trends according the position of celestial bodies at the time when individuals were born.

Many ancient Greek astrological works have survived. One of the most famous was written by the astrologer Vettius Valens (second century BC) who, judging by his tone and words, does not sound very optimistic in relation to personality trends linked to the signs of the zodiac. In his work The Astrological Anthologies, for example, he said that being born under Taurus is shameful, and that such people are likely to suffer from “pain in the nostrils through injury and disease, broken limbs, throat tumors, sciatica, and abscesses. Capricorn, Valens adds, is a “wicked and inconsistent” sign, and such people are “prone to making mistakes, fickle, criminal, dishonest, censorious, and disgusting.”

1Dreams

The idea the dreams could foretell the future was widespread in ancient Greece. The ancient diviner Artemidorus compiled a work named Interpretation of Dreams, where he reveals some intricate meanings linked to number games

“Seeing a weasel in a dream signifies an evil and tricky woman and a lawsuit, for ‘lawsuit’ and ‘weasel’ are isopsephic [so if we add the numerical value of the letters in these words, they are both equal].”

“Seeing an old woman in a dream foretells death to a sick person, since [the words] ‘old woman’, adds up to 704, and ‘the funeral’ adds to 704. An old woman symbolizes a funeral in any case, since she is going to die in the not very distant future.”

The demography of ancient Greece has always been a hard subject to study. Although ancient sources provide no reliable statistical data on childbirth, mortality, life expectancy, and other related metrics, we do know quite a bit about practices and issues that affected population levels.

Ancient Greek folklore and imagery glorify the procreative energy of female sexuality. But we also know that under some circumstances, women wanted to avoid pregnancy or dispose of illegitimate, deformed, or sick children.

10 Silphium

There is plenty of recorded evidence that the Greeks were familiar with the contraceptive properties of a small tree known as silphium, which belonged to the Ferula genus. This plant was both discovered and marketed by the Greek colonists in Cyrene, an ancient Greek city on the North African coast near present-day Shahhat, Libya.

All attempts to transplant and cultivate the silphium tree outside Cyrene were unsuccessful. The overexploitation of silphium led to its extinction. By the first century AD, the plant was expensive due to the low supply, and the last historical reference we know is dated to the fourth century AD.

Clinical testing performed with extracts from plants of related species have shown them to be effective contraceptives in animals provided that the extract is administered within three days of mating. This suggests that silphium may have been used as an herbal morning-after pill similar to the morning-after pills marketed today (Wilson 2006: 182).

9 Magical Procedures

In ancient Greece, magical concoctions, spells, amulets, and incantations were believed to aid both reproduction and contraception. For some reason, the testicles of a weasel were believed to act in both directions.

According to an ancient Greek text known as Cyranides (2.7), the right testicle of a weasel “reduced to ashes and mixed in a paste with myrrh” was believed to aid conception when inserted into a woman’s vagina on a small ball of wool before the sexual encounter.

The contraceptive use of weasel testicles employed the left testicle “wrapped in mule skin and attached to the woman.” Since the text does not tell us exactly how the testicles should be attached to the woman, it is not possible to confirm or deny the effectiveness of this procedure (McKeown 2013: 35).

8 Male Contraception

Some ancient sources refer to a plant named periklymenon that was believed to act as a male contraceptive, but all modern attempts to identify it have failed. The renowned Greek physician Galen reported that the chaste tree was used by athletes to prevent erections. There are other references claiming that the leaves of the chaste tree were chewed by priests to decrease sexual desire (Wilson 2006: 182).

Modern testing of chaste tree extract on dogs has shown it to be an effective blocker of sperm production. Coitus interruptus was a known male contraceptive method, but it is unclear to what extent this method was employed judging by the scarce reference to it.

7 Abortion

Abortion was a well-known procedure in ancient Greece. Although the ancient Greeks knew both surgical and chemical procedures to interrupt a pregnancy, literary evidence suggests that surgical methods were discouraged due to the risk posed to the mother.

Socrates, whose mother was a midwife, said in Plato’s Theaetetus (149d), “With the drugs and incantations they administer, midwives can [during an early stage of the pregnancy] cause a miscarriage if they so decide.” Ancient Greek medical literature recorded the names of several plants that were used to terminate early pregnancies including rue, pennyroyal, myrrh, juniper, and birthwort.

Although abortion was considered controversial in some Greek cities, we have no evidence that it was a punishable crime. Ancient Greek medical texts indicate that abortion was often practiced by prostitutes (Wilson 2006: 1).

6 Infanticide

Infanticide was a well-known method of family planning. From a legal standpoint, a child had little protection until the amphidromia was conducted, which was the ceremony where the father named the child.

In general, the child could be killed without any legal trouble or moral controversies at any point before this ceremony took place. Moreover, in some ancient Greek law codes, infanticide was an advisable course of action under specific circumstances.

The term “infant exposure” (putting the infant outside) is used in ancient sources, presumably as a euphemism for infanticide in many cases. The outcome of the abandonment of an infant is either death or adoption by a third party (Hornblower and Spawforth 2012: 735).

Infant exposure is a repetitive theme in ancient lore and legends, and Greece is no exception (e.g. Oedipus, Paris, and Telephus). This literary evidence suggests that infanticide was probably a widespread method of limiting family size, although the exact extent to which it was employed is difficult to assess.

5 Deformed Infants

There is a very specific form of infanticide recorded in ancient Greece that has been strongly connected to Sparta. According to Plutarch (“Life of Lycurgus,” 16), every Spartan newborn had to be brought to the elders for examination:

If [the infant] was well-built and sturdy, they ordered the father to rear it [ . . . ]; but if it was ill-born and deformed, they sent it to the so-called Apothetae, a chasm-like place at the foot of Mount Taygetus, in the conviction that the life of that which nature had not well equipped at the very beginning for health and strength, was of no advantage either to itself or the state.

The reality is that Spartans were not the only ones concerned with deformed infants. In Book 7 of his work Politics, Aristotle supports infanticide in the case of deformed infants: “As to the exposure and rearing of children, let there be a law that no deformed child shall live.”

Even the Romans in the Law of the Twelve Tables (the foundation of Rome’s legal system) contemplated the killing of deformed infants (table 4, 1): “A notably deformed child shall be killed immediately.”

4 Homosexuality

The American scholar William Percy has argued that the encouragement of sexual intercourse between members of the same sex in ancient Greece, particularly the institutionalized Athenian pederasty, was aimed at controlling the population level. An interpretation along the same lines was already expressed by Aristotle (Politics 2.1272a 22–24), who argued that the goal behind the institutionalized pederasty of the Cretan society was to check the demographic growth.

It does not seem possible to confirm whether homosexual practices in ancient Greece were encouraged with the conscious purpose to check demographic growth. But it is reasonable to suppose that as the number of sexual encounters between members of the same sex increases, the frequency of sexual intercourse between members of the opposite sex is likely to be reduced.

Homosexuality might well have had an effect on population control—not as a strategy consciously aimed to check population levels but merely as an inevitable side effect of limiting heterosexual activity (Wilson 2006: 127).

3 Legal Regulations

Several aspects of population control had a legal regulation in ancient Greece. In the city of Gortyn (central Crete), we found detailed information concerning various laws inscribed around 450 BC (Hornblower and Spawforth 2012: 623–735).

The Gortyn law code (3, 43–48) allowed infant exposure in some cases: “If a wife who is separated (by divorce) should bear a child, (they) are to bring it to the husband at his house in the presence of three witnesses; and if he should not receive it, the child should be in the mother’s power either to rear or expose.”

Interestingly, the Gortyn law code (4, 9–13) also contemplated fines if a woman did not comply with this regulation: “If a wife who is separated (by divorce) should expose her child before presenting it as it is written [in this legal code], if she is convicted, she shall pay, for a free child, fifty-staters, for a slave, twenty-five.”

In the city of Thebes, the law did not allow infanticide. However, poor parents were allowed to sell their children.

2 Mortality And Life Expectancy

War was arguably the most important factor for adult male mortality, although maternal, neonatal, and infant mortality were also high. No reliable figures on demographic statistics have survived to our days, but some scholars have come up with different figures. Maternal death estimates range from 5 in 20,000, a truly low and probably unrealistic calculation, to 25 in 1,000. This rate would vary in different places at different times (Hornblower and Spawforth 2014: 161, 617).

Based on forensic anthropology data from Classical Greece cemeteries, infant mortality has been estimated at about 30 percent (Olyntus, northern Greece) assuming that the sample of human remains analyzed is representative of the wider population, which is uncertain.

The ancient Greeks coined the word amphithales (“blooming on both sides”) to refer to a child with both parents still alive. The fact that a special word was employed to refer to this situation suggests that life expectancy was low (McKeown 2013: 16).

1 Miscellaneous Birth Control Methods

Ancient literature records a number of additional contraceptive methods that are hard to classify and of dubious effectiveness. In the first century AD, the Greek physician Dioscorides recommended anointing the male genitals with cedar gum and applying alum to the uterus. Such practice was believed to make the womb unsuitable to host the male seed.

Other methods included the use of a suppository of peppermint and honey before intercourse and a peppery pessary after sexual activity to “dry out” the uterus and make it inhospitable for the fetus.

Ancient Greece is often seen as the birthplace of Western civilization. It’s also credited with founding some of the earliest institutions devoted to acquiring knowledge, and if that wasn’t enough, Athens is commonly regarded as the birthplace of democracy.

But the length of time between this era and the modern world means that not everything about this period of antiquity is actually known to us today. Records are lost, stories become embellished, and so on. Here are ten mysteries about ancient Greece which still remain unresolved.

10 The Secrets Of The Eleusinian Mysteries

One of the most intriguing mysteries of ancient Greece concerns a secret organization whose name also helped to define the concept of “mystery” as we understand it today.^[1] The Eleusinian Mysteries were a religious cult which revolved around a series of clandestine rituals and ceremonies, many of which still remain unknown today. (Note that the term “Eleusinian Mysteries” is also used to refer to the rituals themselves.)

One of the reasons for our current lack of knowledge is that the Mysteries were designed to be kept secret, and followers were forbidden to divulge the details of the cult’s inner workings. It has even been claimed that anyone who did reveal the truth risked being killed. The limited number of sources discussing the nature of the rites involved makes it even more unlikely that the whole story behind this cult will ever be known in its entirety.

9 The Life Of Thespis

Thespis is the name attributed to the sixth-century-BC Athenian who was believed to have been the first individual to perform a role as if he were another person and is therefore regarded by some as being the world’s first actor. The impact of this figure in cultural history is such that the term “thespian” was derived from his name as a way to refer to actors. Yet relatively little is known for certain about him, his life, and his career. Was Thespis his real name? Was he really from Athens? And most importantly, did he really exist in the first place?

It has been noted that all the sources which refer to him, including an account by the poet Horace, were written at a much later point in time than he was said to have performed, and there are no contemporary accounts of the person in question.^[2] It has therefore been suggested that Thespis himself could be considered a myth and more of a symbol of the beginning of acting in the Greek theatrical tradition, rather than a specific person who could be definitively identified.

8 The Art And Architecture Of The Parthenon

The Parthenon in Athens is one of the most iconic images of ancient Greece. Its endurance over the past 2,500 years is all the more remarkable, given that it was built in an unusually short period of time, and seemingly without a detailed construction plan.^[3] Mystery also surrounds other aspects of its architecture and art, with much remaining undetermined about both the creation and purpose of certain details of the building.

There has been ongoing debate over the content of the frieze which decorates the interior of the Parthenon and what the figures within the frieze are intended to convey: One of the possibilities raised has been that they may have been intended as representations of the people who helped to build it. The temple also contains two interior chambers, the smaller of which has never had its purpose identified.

7 The Creators Of The Two Constitutions Of The Athenians

The Constitution of the Athenians is a title attributed to two different documents of ancient Greece, one originally associated with the philosopher Xenophon, the other with Aristotle. However, in both cases, the authorship has been disputed and continues to be debated to this day. While the older of the two texts was originally credited to Xenophon, it is now regarded as not actually his own work, partly due to the likely date of its composition having predated the mature years of his writing career.^[4] Its author is now often described as “Pseudo-Xenophon,” but the identity of the person who actually wrote the work has never been conclusively established.

The later document was regarded by most as having been written by Aristotle, but there has been some disagreement on this, due to the fact that it is very different in style to his other works. However, this has been countered by the suggestion that such differences could be attributed to the fact that the constitution was a form of writing very different from the rest of his accomplishments.

6 The Work Of Pythagoras

The mathematician Pythagoras is famous today for his association with the theory that the square of the longest side of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the remaining two shorter sides. One of the most famous of all mathematical theorems, it has become known as the Pythagorean Theorem, yet the life and work of the man so closely associated with it is actually much more unclear.

This is partly due to the fact that the philosophical school he worked within operated under very secretive conditions, and it is therefore unclear in some cases which work can be attributed to him and which may have been done by another member of the organization.^[5] It has also been proven that the most famous theory associated with him was already known in ancient Babylon and that it cannot be considered to be his original discovery.

5 The Destruction Of The Statue Of Zeus

The Statue of Zeus was one of the legendary Seven Wonders of the World, a list compiled by notable scholars during antiquity of the most impressive structures created by human beings in ancient times. Of the seven wonders, only the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt survives today, the six others having been lost over the course of time. The Statue of Zeus was created by Phidias, one of the most renowned sculptors of ancient Greece, and its eventual destruction remains one of the most mysterious losses of the wonders.

The statue was housed within the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, which was eventually destroyed by fire, and it is often assumed that the statue was lost in this blaze, but it has also been argued that the statue may have been removed from the temple at an earlier stage and taken to the city of Constantinople, known today as Istanbul, where it may have been lost in a fire there instead.^[6]

4 Aristotle’s Lost Theory Of Comedy

Aristotle’s Poetics is a major text in the history of literary criticism, the earliest known work to analyze the art of writing itself. However, one part of this key work of ancient Greek literature seems likely to remain a mystery: the legend of the existence of a second book, which was said to have focused on Aristotle’s theory of comedy, accompanying the theory of tragedy discussed in the first book of the Poetics.

There has been debate as to whether or not this is a genuine lost work, as, despite being mentioned in a list of Aristotle’s works in an early biography, there is little other evidence for its existence.^[7] Nevertheless, the possibility of such a lost text has been an enduring source of speculation and even plays a role in Umberto Eco’s novel The Name of the Rose, in which the supposed rediscovery of this book becomes an important plot point.

3 The Labyrinth Which Inspired The Minotaur Myth

One of the most famous Greek myths centers on the story of the Minotaur, the terrifying individual who was half a bull and half a human and was kept imprisoned within a labyrinthine maze by King Minos. This labyrinth has subsequently been speculated as a structure that may have genuinely existed and served as the inspiration for the myth in question.

The palace at the ancient city of Knossos, located on the Greek island of Crete, has sometimes been argued as a location for the labyrinth that may have inspired this myth, although excavations at the site have not yet revealed a structure which matches the idea. However, recent research has also proposed a stone quarry near the town of Gortyn, 32 kilometers (20 mi) away from Knossos, as an alternative possible location.^[8] The debate continues, and a definitive location remains to be identified.

2 Plato’s Unfinished Trilogy

The myth of Atlantis originated in the work of Plato, where it is mentioned in his dialogues, Timaeus and Critias, as an example of a civilization in counterpoint to that of Athens, one which eventually falls into ruin and sinks beneath the waves of the Atlantic. But the mystery remains why these works, which were projected to form a trilogy upon completion, were ultimately abandoned.

Plato did not complete the Critias, the second dialogue, and no record can be found of him having embarked upon the intended third work, which was to have been entitled Hermocrates.^[9] It remains unknown why Plato did not complete this intended trilogy. The result of this is that the work which generated so much speculation on the subject of Atlantis has now become a source of mystery in its own right, due to the fact that the philosopher himself never completed it, without any definitive answer as to why he did not.

1 The Authorship Of Homer’s Poems

Homer, the poet credited as the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, is believed to be the earliest known Greek author. But he remains a mysterious figure in many respects, including the question of whether or not he was the sole author of either of the works most closely associated with him. It has been suggested that Homer may not have been the creator of both the Iliad and the Odyssey, due to stylistic differences between the two works, which some believe indicate different authors.

It has also been argued that, even if Homer did originate both works in some form himself, it is still appropriate to view the poems as collective endeavors, due to the fact that they would have been initially composed through speech rather than writing and communicated through a number of subsequent speakers, with likely elaborations during this process.^[10]

Jane Alexander is a freelance writer.

There was a time when Persia was the greatest empire in the world. They marched upon Greece with an army of 2.5 million fighters—but, because they lost, we have only heard the story through the words of their enemies.

Most people today know it through the story of Leonidas and his 300 Spartans—but that was just a small moment in a much bigger war. The real story revolved around the Persian King Xerxes—and it was a bit different from how you might be picturing it.

10Sparta Apologized for Throwing a Messenger down a Well

That famous moment when the Spartans kicked a Persian messenger down a well really happened—but a lot of details got left out, and they will completely change the way you see it.

Xerxes’ father sent messengers to every ruler in Greece demanding a tribute of earth and water as a show of submission to Persia. It was not just the Spartans who refused—the Athenians threw their messenger down a pit, too. They had the courtesy to give him a trial first, though. The Spartans just told him to “Dig out Sparta’s earth and water yourself!” and threw him in.

By the time Xerxes became king, he did not even bother sending messengers to Athens or Sparta. He did not have to, anyway. The Spartans came to him and said they were sorry.

After throwing the Persian in the well, the Spartans became convinced that they were cursed. The gods stopped answering their prayers, and they were pretty sure it was because they had mistreated a messenger. So, to make the gods happy, they sent two human sacrifices to Xerxes. They apologized and offered to let him execute them to even the score.

Xerxes spared them. Partly, he was trying to take the high road, but mainly he just had his mind set on revenge. “The death of two men,” he told them, would not “acquit the Spartans from the guilt they have contracted.”

9The Greeks Practically Begged Xerxes to Invade Them

Xerxes, originally, wanted to leave Greece alone. His father had led a long and painful campaign against the Greeks and lost, and Xerxes was not eager to follow in his footsteps. Some of his generals pushed for him to go to war, but he was not going to listen to them—until the Greeks asked him to.

A lot of Greeks actually loved Persia. They thought they were an incredibly diverse and progressive nation. Some of them were so eager to become a part of the empire that they actually came to Persia and asked Xerxes to be their leader.

First, the Aleuadae family came over and offered to pay Xerxes to come to Greece. Then another family, the Pisistratidae, came and offered him even more. They even brought an oracle with them, who told Xerxes he was destined to build a floating bridge and conquer Greece.

By the time they had left, Xerxes was convinced he was meant to rule Greece. He called together his people and announced that they would be going to war. “I will never rest,” he declared, “until I have taken Athens and burnt it.”

8Xerxes Made His Men Whip a River for Misbehaving

Xerxes bought into the prophecy the Greeks gave him. He wanted to play out every moment they described leading to his victory, and so he set up a floating bridge across the Hellespont River. It did not work out—as soon as the bridge went up, a storm knocked it down.

Xerxes had some issues with anger. If someone made him mad, he got revenge—even if that someone was a body of water. He ordered his men to put chains on the river and whip it for its insolence. So, they tossed some chains in the water and gave the river 300 lashes, yelling, “You are a turbid and briny river!”

It gets weirder. Xerxes, apparently, felt bad about whipping the river, because, once he got his bridge to stay up, he apologized to it. He burned incense on the bridge and threw golden bottles into the water—which, according to Herodotus, was his attempt to apologize to the sea.

7Xerxes Cut a Man in Half for Draft Dodging

Before he crossed the bridge, one of Xerxes’ men, named Pythius, came to him and asked for a favor. He’d had visions that the war would fail, and he feared his sons, who were marching off to war, would die. “Take pity on me in my advanced age,” Pythius begged, “and release one of my sons, the eldest, from service.”

Xerxes’ short fuse went off. After cursing Pythius out for a full minute, he barked, “You shall be punished by the life of the one you must desire to keep.” He sent his men out to get Pythius’ son and had him cut in half.

One half of his body was put on the right side of the road and the other half on left, so that the army had to march between his severed corpse on the road to Greece.

6Xerxes Tore Down a Mountain Just Because He Could

Before he left for Greece, Xerxes ordered his men to build a massive canal. His father’s fleet had been swept away in a storm when he invaded Greece, and Xerxes did not want to make the same mistake. He ordered his men to plow through a mountain and build a massive, artificial canal that stretched over two kilometers.

It took three years of whipping workers to make it, but they did it. They made a canal so massive that the whole Persian fleet could cross it. This was such a massive feat that, until fairly recently, people thought it was a myth. Until land surveyors found proof that it really did exist, we thought it was impossible.

The Greeks, though, did not really understand why he was doing it. “With no trouble they could have drawn their ships across the isthmus,” Herodotus wrote about it, pointing to a natural strip of land that would have kept the ships safe.

He had another theory. “Xerxes gave the command for this digging out of pride, wishing to display his power and leave a memorial.” If he is right, it worked—the canal outlived its creators.

5The Spartans Got Ready for Battle by Making Their Hair Look Pretty

Meanwhile, the Spartans were getting ready for battle in their own way. The Spartan army kept their hair long, believing that long, wild hair would strike terror in the hearts of their enemies. Before battle, they did their exercises and combed their long hair, preparing for war—but that was not exactly how the Persians saw it.

Xerxes sent a spy ahead to scope out the Spartan forces, and he was not impressed by what he saw. He reported back that the Spartans were sitting around dancing and making sure their hair looked pretty instead of getting ready for war.

A Spartan defector, Demaratus, tried to explain to him that Spartans prepare their hair before fighting. In part, it let them die with dignity, but their thick braids also worked as a type of armor. Xerxes, though, was not impressed. He made a joke about them being sissies and marched on.

4The Persian Army Had Every Bad Omen Possible

As the Persian army approached they saw things that, according to the Greeks, were bad omens everywhere they looked. First, they walked past a mare giving birth to a hare, which, according to the Greeks, symbolized that Xerxes would flee for his life.

Then they saw the birth of a hermaphroditic mule, with both male and female genitals. Our source for this is Herodotus, who saw this as such an obvious omen that it is not even worth explaining. “The meaning of it was easy to guess,” he writes, before scoffing at Xerxes because he “took no account of either sign and journeyed onward.”

Those omens have lost a lot of their meaning—but anybody would be worried about what happened next. As they marched forward, they started getting attacked by every lion that they saw. Every night, lions would come out of their homes just to kill their camels—and some started to wonder if maybe the gods just did not like them that much.

3Xerxes Defiled Leonidas’ Body

The Battle of Thermopylae followed. Leonidas and 300 Spartans met the Persian army and held out against them to the last man. But the story does not end with Leonidas’ death.

After the 300 Spartans were defeated, the Persians marched on. They rained arrows upon the Spartans until the last one was dead, and slaughtered every person they could find. They tore down the walls of Thermopylae. Every single Spartan they could find was killed.

When Leonidas was shot down, his men-at-arms tried to protect his body and get it to a safe place where it could be put to rest with dignity. Xerxes, though, would not allow it. Once his men had crushed their way through, he had Leonidas’ head chopped off and his body crucified on a spike.

2The Greeks Nearly Lost Because of a Love Spat over a Handsome Boy

Leonidas, though, was not the real hero of the war. The man who really made it possible for the Greeks to win was Themistocles.

Before Persia had even set its sights on Greece, Themistocles was building warships to get ready. It was the Navy that really beat the Persians. Themistocles tricked Xerxes into sending his ships into a narrow canal called Salamis, where he surprised him with a stronger defense than he had expected. It was the turning point in the war; the moment that made a Greek victory possible.

It nearly did not happen, though, because of Themistocles’ penchant for young boys. He and a man named Aristides had been fighting over the love of a good-looking boy named Stesilaus. Aristides was so mad about it that he fought Themistocles at every turn.

Out of spite, he nearly stopped Themistocles from building his navy. Themistocles managed to get Aristides kicked out Athens and built his ships, if he had not, the Persians would have won—all because of a spat between the jealous lovers of a young boy.

1Themistocles Joined the Persian Army

This war changed all of Western history. Had it not been for Themistocles, Greece never would have developed into the philosophic cultural cornerstone it became. He saved Greece—and then, promptly afterward, switched sides.

After the war, Themistocles worked on building up the Athenian military to get them ready to fight the Spartans. The Spartans found out and, in retaliation, spread rumors that he was planning on betraying Athens to the Persians. It worked. The Athenians kicked him out.

Frustrated, Themistocles decided that if they thought he was helping the Persians, then maybe he should just do it anyway. He sailed off to Persia and spent the rest of his life as a Persian governor. He worked for Xerxes’ son until the very end, serving the army he had once defeated.

Mark Oliver is a regular contributor to . He writing also appears on a number of other sites, including The Onion’s StarWipe and Cracked.com. His website is regularly updated with everything he writes.

Greece is a well-liked travel destination with attractions for all tastes. It will enchant beachgoers, foodies, culture vultures, and history buffs alike. Greece is considered the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy. Greek Islands rank among the country’s most picturesque locations, but the mainland is also home to rough mountains and intriguing historic sites. To help you plan your itinerary, here are the 26 best places to visit in Greece.

The 26 Best Places To Visit In Greece

1. Santorini

One of the most well-known and top-notch tourist destinations in Greece is Santorini. It is ideal for a romantic rendezvous or honeymoon. The island has blue domes perched high on sea cliffs and whitewashed villages. 

There are beautiful beaches in Santorini complete with red sand, black sand, and golden sand. It is arguably the most gorgeous Greek island. The best times to see scintillating Santorini are from September 1 through October 31 and from April 1 through May 31 when the weather is warm and there are fewer tourists around. Experience the island’s cultural side, explore the archeological site of Akrotiri, and enjoy the infinity pools, the sunsets and other breathtaking views. 

2. Meteora

One of the most stunning tourist destinations in Greece, Meteora, is becoming more well-known. Here you will discover monasteries from the ninth century that were constructed atop enormous rock monoliths. Because of Meteora’s magnificent monasteries, it is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

400 meter-high sandstone spires tower over the lovely landscape. Meteora formed 60 million years ago, is said by some to be both extraordinary and stunning. Monks constructed monasteries at the top of these massive mountains as a covert retreat where they could live in safety and seclusion and had to scale the walls with ropes and ladders. You can see the monasteries and the Delphi Archaeological Site on a two-day tour.

3. Athens

Spend three days in Athens when you travel to Greece before departing for the island’s golden beaches. The ancient archaeological sites that dot Greece’s capital city blend in surprisingly well with modern-day habitation. The Parthenon, which was constructed between 447 and 432 BC, sits at the center of the ancient Acropolis, which dominates this superb city.  

Veteran visitors can confirm it is a must-see metropolis. Don’t miss the Ancient Agora, the Theatre of Herodes Atticus, and the Temple of Hephaestus, Dine on one of the local rooftop patios too. The best months to visit Athens are March through May and September through November. The climate’s pleasant, crowds are fewer, and discounts abound.

4. Epirus

One favorite location, western Greece’s Epirus is surrounded by the Ionian Sea and Albania. This vast area is ideal for those who enjoy the outdoors. There’s so much to do here you could actually stay for a week.

This amazing region, which has just recently been discovered, is full of mountain villages, breathtaking landscapes, and lovely beaches. If you set up a base in Ioannina, you can easily travel to the Kipina Monastery, the most impressive monastery outside of Meteora, via the magnificent Stone Arch Bridges of Zagori. The spring and summer seasons are the ideal times to travel here. The area is less crowded because fewer tourists travel there than to other parts of Greece. 

5. Ioannina

The City of Ioannina, which is the capital of Epirus, will astound you. It is rich in Byzantine history, has marvelous museums, and a vibrant nightlife. Perhaps the most significant landmarks here are the seven monasteries on the Island of the Lake. In fact, one of Greece’s three most incredibly crucial monasteries, along with Meteora and the Mount Athos Monastery, is the memorable Monastery of the Philanthropists, which harkens back to 1204. The months of May through September are the ideal times to travel to Ioannina. The warm, pleasant weather during these months is ideal for outdoor pursuits like camping, hiking, paragliding, swimming, and seeing the city’s landmarks. 

6. Parga

Greece’s Parga is a stunning vacation destination with a variety of attractions, including white-sand beaches traditional whitewashed buildings, and clear blue waters. The main attraction is Parga Castle, where you can hike up for stunning views of the area. Parga will give you a sense of what a Greek Island vacation is like because it has the feel of a Greek isle despite being on the mainland. 

Sivota, Preveza, and Plataria all have lovely beaches in addition to the nearby Valtos Beach, which is frequently cited as one of the best beaches in the country. Enjoy fresh seafood at a beach bar. This place is fairly famous for its keen cuisine!

7. Zagori

Zagori’s just outside of popular Ioannina. Visit the lovely Averoff Gallery as well as the Katogi Averoff Hotel and Winery to see. It serves as the ideal starting point for exploring all that Vikos has to offer, from its beautiful hiking trails to its ancient monasteries. The Vikos Gorge should not be missed, even though Zagori is best known for its stone bridges.  The Guinness Book of World Records lists this as the deepest gorge on the planet, making it one of the nation’s natural wonders. This picturesque area of Greece is not to be missed because it has hiking trails, beautiful lookouts, and a diverse, attractive array of flora.

8. Zakynthos

Zakynthos (also known as Zante in Greek) is one of the top Greek islands for scuba diving. It has some of the best beaches in the nation. Navagio Beach, a.k.a. Shipwreck Beach is one of the most well-known beaches in Greece. 

It is surrounded by tall, white cliffs and turquoise water.  Shipwreck Beach is even more pristine because it can only be reached by boat tour. The town of Zante is located on Zakynthos’ eastern coast. 

It is a convenient location for traveling and has a lively nightlife. The island has a rich history and delicious Greek cuisine. The best time to see Zakynthos is from March through May and September until early December.

9.Crete

There’s nothing better than island hopping in Greece, and any trip there must include a stop on the stunning island of Crete. The best beaches in Greece can be found on Crete, the largest of the Greek Islands. Additionally, you’ll see the well-known whitewashed homes and standard southern towns.

With its lofty peaks, narrow gorges, and pristine sandy beaches, Crete is a must-see location. Samaria Gorge should not be missed if you enjoy hiking; it’s undoubtedly one of Greece’s natural wonders. The beauty of this national park is among the best in all of Europe. Make sure to visit Elafonisi Beach, which is frequently cited as Greece’s top beach too!

10. Knossos

Knossos is among the best locations on the island of Crete. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The palace of King Minos is on display here in this outdoor archaeological museum. 

Created by an ancient Minoan civilization, it has been here for over 2000 years. This sizable bronze age archeological site is one of the country’s best and most well-preserved. Visit Knossos in spring or autumn with a guide, explore the old Heraklion, the capital of Crete, and sample some authentic traditional Greek cuisine. Rent a car here and explore off the beaten path to learn more about how the locals live.

11. Pelion

On the Pelion Peninsula in mainland Greece, Pelion is a stunning region of Greece. Tsagarada, Makrinitsa, and Milies are just a few of the picturesque villages on Pelion, which is halfway between Athens and Thessaloniki. Plus, this is the location to be if you want to see where the film *Mama Mia* was filmed. 

A large portion of the motion picture was shot in the coastal community of Damouchari. Jason and the Argonauts lived in Volos, a lovely city on the coast. This is a must-see if you enjoy Greek mythology from antiquity. The best seasons to visit Pelion are spring and fall because of the mild and pleasant weather.

12. Skiathos

Skiathos takes you off the beaten path. This island in the Sporades archipelago in the northwest Aegean Sea evokes memories of Crete or Santorini from the early 2000s. Travel the island by rental car. 

Similar to the more well-known Greek islands, this island has lovely whitewashed houses, sandy beaches, and a laid-back atmosphere. Skiathos is well-liked by tourists due to its stunning beaches and vibrant nightlife. The Evangelistria Monastery, built in 1894, is a notable landmark in this area. Spend your evenings unwinding in a tavern on the beach, sipping sparkling wine, and enjoying authentic Greek cuisine. After that, take a stroll along the water to witness the mesmerizing sunsets. 

13. Skopelos

Skopelos, another *Mama Mia* location with stunning scenery, is only a short distance from Skiathos. Numerous beautiful beaches, picturesque monasteries clinging to its coast, whitewashed houses with blue doors, and terracotta roofs are all highlights of Skopelos. Mind you, Skopelos is a stunning Greek island but unless you know someone who has traveled there, it probably would not be on your list of must-see locations in Greece. There are 360 monasteries and churches there, as well as stunning beaches with white limestone cliffs and clear, diving- and snorkeling-friendly waters. The most pleasant seasons to visit Skopelos are spring and fall when the weather is mild.

14. Costa Navarino

Although the beaches on the Greek islands are among the best in the entire country, a number of travel writers consider Costa Navarino, located in the southwest corner of the Peloponnese region of mainland Greece, can compete with the very best of them. Few visitors come to this incredible location in Greece, which is in Messinia on the Ionian Sea’s crystal clear waters. Messinia is one of some frequent flyers’ favorite places to travel in Greece because it is a unique destination with opulent resorts, olive groves, and charming villages. Although Messene in the Peloponnese is less visited by tourists, it’s just as impressive as the ancient ruins of Athens. 

15. Voidokilia Beach

The most stunning beach we’ve ever seen, Voidokilia Beach, is not far from Costa Navarino. Voidokilia Beach is a place of legends because it is shaped like the Greek letter Omega. This beach was mentioned by Homer in the Odyssey, and it was thought that King Nestor, a former ruler of Pylos, frequented it. Some must-see sites around Voidokilia Beach include popular Paleokastro, Nestor’s Cave, and Gialova Lagoon. The summer months of June, July, August, and September are the best times to visit Voidokilia Beach because the weather is warm and there are fewer tourists there. 

16. Messene

Few people have heard of the ancient city of Messene, despite the fact that everyone is familiar with the Acropolis, the Temple of Apollo, and the Temple of Poseidon. This ancient Greek city is a must-see. One of the Best Places in Greece is Messene. 

It withstood numerous sieges by both the Macedonians and the Spartans and is filled with centuries of history. Although it is not nearly as popular as other Greek archaeological sites, it is a favorite of many of those who have been there. Wander through the theater, stadium, and agora of the Greeks. Add Messene to your must-see list if you go to Costa Navarino.   

17. Kalamata

Messenia’s capital is located in the port city of Kalamata. Fans of the arts and theater should definitely go here. That’s because the Castle of Isabeau is the main attraction here. 

Every year, the International Dance Festival takes place here. This location is a huge amphitheater with a view of the whole city. Additionally, you will be able to observe the various influences that both the Venetians and the Turks had on the building’s architecture. 

You can also visit a lot of museums while you’re here. Take your time and thoroughly explore this city. If you’re looking for sun, the best months to visit Kalamata are between June and August. 

18. Thessaloniki

Be sure to visit Thessaloniki. Greek Macedonia’s capital is located in Northern Greece, in Thessaloniki. With Turkish Baths and Byzantine and Roman era monuments, it gives off the impression that you are in Turkey. To see historic locations like the Roman Market, Hammams, and Byzantine Churches, make sure to stroll through the old town. Don’t miss the White Tower, Thessaloniki’s iconic landmark that rises 33 meters above the ground. The months of April through November are the best for travel to Thessaloniki. The warmest months are July and August when highs of 34°C are common. The White Tower, Ladadika, the Ataturk Museum, and Aristotelous Square are must-see attractions in Thessaloniki.

19. Olympus National Park

You must visit Mount Olympus if you enjoy Greek mythology. Journey to Thessaly and hike this mythical mountain. It’s 2,917 meters tall. The legendary mountain feels a long way from civilization as it winds through waterfalls and thick forests.  

You might not be up to ascending “the Mountain of the Gods,” but you simply must hike at least a part of it. If you’re not overly athletic, go to the popular Prionia trailhead for Prionia and just hike down from that point. The best months to travel are July and August. The weather is typically warm, most facilities and roads are open, and numerous activities are available.

20. Mykonos

The Greek island of Mykonos, which is part of the Cyclades group and located in the Aegean Sea, is well-known for its thriving nightlife and for being a gay-friendly destination with numerous businesses that cater to the LGBT community. It is also well known for its famous golden sand beaches that end in clear waters, drawing tourists to its shores for both daytime fun on the beach and nightlife. The island’s stunning windmills, which line the shore, represent the place and are perhaps its most famous feature. With its charming wooden balconies dangling over the water, Alefkandra, a.k.a. Little Venice, used to be a wealthy merchant city in Venice. 

21. Rhodes

The Island of Rhodes is renowned for its history and scenic beauty. The Lindos Acropolis, Rhodes Old Town, the Grand Master’s Palace, and unwinding at Lindos Beach are all noteworthy Rhodes attractions. It has endured wars and earthquakes for centuries, making it among the most fascinating places to visit in Greece. 

It is one of the most well-liked tourist destinations in Greece due to its combination of historic sites, wonderful beaches, and nightlife. The months of May through September are the most pleasant for traveling to Rhodes. The months of July and August are the island’s busiest travel months. The best months to travel are May, June, and September if you prefer less tourism. 

22. Corfu

Corfu is not exactly a hidden gem, and during the summer months, the island can become overrun with tourists. it is one of the best Greek islands to visit, though, if you go when it’s not peak season. Greece’s greenest island is Corfu. 

There are numerous historical sites scattered all over the island. Corfu Town, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is regarded as the historical center of Corfu. The summer months of June to August are the ideal time to visit Corfu because of the warm, sunny weather. The best time to travel here is in September and October if you prefer less tourism. It can get a tad chilly and rainy during the winter. 

23. Delphi

Greece’s Delphi Archaeological Site is a well-known tourist destination. It is breathtaking to see this ancient temple honoring the Greek God Apollo at the summit of Mount Parnassus. Delphi was regarded as a sacred site by the ancient Greeks. 

Delphi, which dates to the eighth century BC, is renowned for its natural beauty and rich cultural heritage. An incredible scene is created by the ancient Apollo temple complex that is perched atop the tall mountain. The summer months of June to August are the ideal time to visit the Delphi Archaeological Site because they are warm and sunny. The best times to travel are in September and October if you prefer less tourism.

24. Halkidiki

The region of Halkidiki is in northern Greece. The three peninsulas, Kassandra, Sithonia, and Mount Athos, collectively known as “the three legs,” are what make it famous. Mount Athos Monastery is one of Halkidiki’s most fascinating locations. One of Greece’s three most significant monasteries is Mount Athos. One of the best places to travel in Greece, yet many tourists have yet to learn about it in comparison to the tens of thousands of islands in Greece. It is well-liked by sunbathers in Romania and the neighboring country of Bulgaria now, but the rest of Europe will soon follow. June to August is the ideal time to visit Halkidiki for sunny weather.  

25. Athens Riviera

The Athens Riviera is a fantastic place to visit in Greece if you’re in Athens and just plain don’t have time to travel to the islands. enjoyed a long weekend driving along the section of the Athens Riviera outside of the city. From Athens, you can either rent a car or order a taxi. 

Discounted transfers from Athens International Airport might be available through your hotel. The summer months of June to August are also the ideal time to visit the Athens Riviera because of the warm weather. On the other hand, if you book your visit in either September or October, there are fewer tourists.

26. Poseidon’s Temple

Even if you don’t spend the night on the Athens Riviera, you absolutely must take a day trip from Athens to Poseidon’s Temple. This tremendous temple on the shore of the Ionian Sea is situated at the southernmost point of mainland Greece and is well worth the journey. Greek gods were highly revered in ancient times, and Poseidon’s Temple is the most impressive because of its location. The summer months of June to August are the ideal time to visit the Temple of Poseidon because they are warm and sunny. The best times to travel are in September and October if you prefer less tourism. A day trip can be scheduled from Athens.

Ancient Rome and Greece are often cited as the birthplace of Western culture and the cradle of amazing thinkers and artists to whom we all aspire. Because of this, the less admirable qualities of these ancient civilizations have been mostly forgotten in favor of the beautiful but romanticized view of those countries and governments.

There was more to Rome than art and philosophy, and there was more to Greece than sculpture and debate. Hollywood tends to focus more on the Parthenon and the Roman Senate than the following ten things. What you read below might make you very glad to have never set foot in the world of Socrates or Caesar.

10 Pater Familias, The Family Dictator

The pater familias was the name of the leader of a Roman household, typically the eldest man or most noble birth in the family. The benign duty of protecting the family fell to the pater familias, but the power implicit in the position often led to monstrous consequences for those beneath the patriarch. In efforts to protect the family name, the pater familias had the right to sell any child into slavery, expel wives from the property, and generally control every bit of land and material wealth the family possessed.^[1] This didn’t apply only to the immediate household, either; the familia included extended family, all the way down to servants, clients, and concubines.

This familia was the basic unit of Roman society, and the patriarchal rule of that unit was completely absolute. The pater familias was technically the sole owner of all land and goods the family possessed. This created what was, in essence, a miniature government within each extended family that greatly resembled a dictatorship. Even while dominated by the Roman government, most were doubly ruled by the Roman leadership and their own personal tyrant.

9 The Government Cared About Your Character A Little Too Much

One of the most significant political positions in the Roman government was that of the censor. A censor’s obligations included preserving public morals, keeping the census, and managing finances for the state.^[2] This was a coveted position for people already high up in the hierarchy of Roman society and politics, who saw it as the final and best career for a devoted citizen. The majority of the power of the censor came from their duty to legislate morality. Information could be entered into the census by the censor about the morality of a person or family, which could lead to dire consequences. These accusations, black marks on the name of the accused, could mean loss of the right to vote, expulsion from high society, or overall reduction in rank.

The vices the censor typically punished included anything which would be antithetical to Roman philosophy, namely an overly indulgent lifestyle, mistreatment of slaves, fraud, or general disreputable behavior. Family names could be ruined and people thrown into poverty based on the moral decisions of the censor, who always promoted patriotism to the state. Because morality became interwoven with law, the censor became just another instrument of rule over the people, an untouchable individual with the right to all your secrets and the key to your reputation. This Orwellian system had no space for argument over moral ambiguity or the the privacy of individuals. No one was immune to the censor’s eye, and the stakes were intense. Everyone was under scrutiny at all times, and everyone had everything to lose.

8 Conquest In The Name Of Slavery

Although it’s true that many countries have relied on slaves at different points in their history, the Roman dependence on slave labor is remarkable. As many as 30 percent of the Roman population consisted of slaves at one point, and to exaggerate the issue, slaves died more frequently than they were born.

In order to maintain the slave numbers and keep the labor force, the Romans needed to continually conquer and absorb more slaves. Even this tactic barely sated the need for them. The system, beyond cruel, was terribly inefficient and a waste of human life.^[3]

7 No Mercy From Rome

The Jewish people were in some ways respected by the Romans because of the antiquity of their beliefs, although disliked. Simply put, they were generally manageable, although occasionally problematic, for the Roman Empire. They were an outlier among the polytheistic groups and governments around them, and they refused complete assimilation.

Although typically obedient, when the Jewish people did demonstrate political dissent, they were crushed. The Romans killed thousands of Jews and destroyed their most sacred temple in AD 70, setting an example for how they treat insurrection and how they would soon treat Christian groups. The Romans did this frequently; every single rebellion was treated with severity, and the offenders were often completely decimated.^[4]

6 Be Patriotic Or Die

It should be noted that the Romans did not discriminate based on religion but rather on patriotism. What this means is the Romans did not care who you worshiped so long as you were a good citizen who payed tribute to the leaders. The problem comes when groups like the Christian sects want to meet in private, are growing in number, and refuse to participate in certain rituals which they deem heretical. The Romans perceived religion as a method of maintaining patriotism in the state and used common religious practices to validate Roman rulers and laws. Outsiders like Christians created division and dissent, which the Romans saw as threatening. In doing so, Christians became a persecuted group.

From Nero to Diocletian, Romans killed and tortured enormous numbers of Christians. They humiliated and murdered them both individually and in groups, in front of crowds or openly in the streets. The Romans demonstrated the level of cruelty they could achieve when desperate to squash a threat to their order and created a dystopia where minority beliefs are punishable in imaginative and horrific ways.^[5]

5 The Price Of High Society Was Consent

Aristocratic Greek boys aged 12 to 15 were often provided with a mentor, an older man who was to teach them how to be successful and cultured. Unfortunately, these pairings frequently became more than tutelage; sexual relationships were actually encouraged between the two and completely accepted by the culture. Rights to the young boy were given to the older man for his prowess and in return for his mentorship.

These relationships, sometimes taking place even before the boys hit puberty, were absolutely not consensual but were not resisted, as it was simply seen as part of the social order. Many Greeks would have claimed love for their partner in this mentoring relationship, but it was never the result of free will for the younger participant. In this way, Greek culture terrorized younger noblemen and exploited them for perverted gain, creating a universe which can only be described as frightening.^[6]

4 Women Lived Like Prison Inmates

The separation of Greek girls and women from society as a whole was akin to a life of solitary confinement. Girls existed entirely within the home until they were married, at which point they moved into their husband’s home for a very similar situation. They could run the occasional errand or attend ceremonies (if accompanied), but the vast majority of their life was spent indoors and nearly alone.^[7] Women could spend time with their children and their servants in rooms designated specially for them and could enter the public area of the house to receive visitors only if their husbands allowed it.

Girls were often married at the age of 14, and slave girls were the sexual property of their male masters, as well as the subject of ire of the master’s wife. No female, slave, poor, noble, or middle class, was free, and each suffered under the philosophy that women were merely poorly made men, disfigured and unintelligent, who should be kept in locked rooms for their own safety. This world was a true nightmare for the many women who lived in it and created what was essentially the life of a prisoner for every single female.

3 Cults Were Abundant

Organizations named “mystery cults” by historians were prevalent in ancient Greece and Rome. They had secret services, initiations, ceremonies, and doctrines which differentiated them from each other. Each cult had their own specifications for diet, burial, and daily life, and each worshiped their own god or goddess, believing that by dedicating their lives to one entity, they were likely to achieve favor with that god or goddess and perhaps ascend to a glorious afterlife.

The cult of Mithras was popular in Rome and celebrated militarism and masculinity as an all male-cult.^[8] Whatever their beliefs, the cults are fascinating to historians and pretty creepy to the modern person.

2 A Spartan Newborn Could Kill You

Beginning at childbirth, Spartan citizens were trained for barbarism. To wage war was the ultimate purpose of every Spartan life, and they were all well-equipped to fulfill that purpose. Remarkably, even the diets of Spartan boys were limited. This was not done for the purpose of maintaining a good physique but to actually encourage stealing. If caught stealing food, the punishment would be harsh, not for the crime of stealing but for being caught in the act.

The Spartans preached only efficiency and might, and morality tended to take a back seat. They turned their children into hardened and effective criminals intentionally in order to prepare them for battle. A man had to serve ten years in the military before being granted citizenship and was forced to sneak out of barracks to visit his own wife (and, again, would be punished if caught).^[9] Being born in Sparta was to be born a soldier, bound forever to your state and with hardly any personal freedoms.

1 The Fall

Perhaps the most terrifying thing about ancient Greece and Rome is their fall into corruption. Both were once great and are no longer. For various reasons, they lost control over their empires and ceded their dominance to others. No matter how strong their governments, they eventually became corrupt and fell into ruin. The death of Socrates could allegorically represent the death of the true ideals of Greece and was an omen of their inevitable downfall. Many of the founding ideas of Greek and Roman society were truly good (excluding all those in this list) but did not last until the end of their empires.

Bribery and self-interest contributed to the collapse of the Roman empire, activities which were not so rampant when the young nation started out. As power increased, truly just government slowly fell away, revealing the corrupt and skeletal remains of the original system.^[10] The prevalence of assassinations and shady dealings made the late Roman government a true, real-life dystopia.

I am a poet and aspiring novelist from Rock Hill, South Carolina. I am attending school to major in English with a creative writing concentration as well as Spanish. I love learning unexpected things and telling others about them, and I hope my lists intrigue.

Some periods of history are constantly revisited, for various reasons. People love exploring the past and the world that once was, from the World Wars, to revolutions and countries gaining independence, along with the fall of empires, and other important historical moments. One such historical period that’s garnered immense attention is Ancient Greece.

For centuries, Ancient Greece has been at the forefront of the discussion of history. We’ve recounted the stories of war, democracy, gods, Spartans, Trojans, and all things Greek in order to tell the epic story of this fascinating period in history. Greece, however, was built on mythology and the tales of gods and fantastical creatures. So much so that it’s seeped into every facet of Greek history. As a result, Ancient Greece’s history has become somewhat inflated, or distorted, to its reality. To truly understand this legendary time in human history, we must sort facts from fiction and understand some misconceptions we’re still contending with today. 

10.  Greek Wasn’t a Unified Nation

Greece, as a nation, is filled with rolling hills, mountains, and rivers, which acted as natural separators between the various city-states that existed. The Greece we know today is a relatively unified nation. Ancient Greece, however, was almost entirely the opposite.

Ancient Greece was a collection of autonomous city-states known individually as a polis, which shared near-identical ideologies, language, ways of life, and culture. However, beyond these shared ways of life and values, the unity or affiliations between these city-states was scarce. Even the best examples were short-lived or very loose in their definition of ‘affiliation’. There was no true consistency, as each polis was governed differently. Some poleis took on the democratic system originated in Athens, while others took on more traditional forms of government like oligarchy, aristocracy, and tyranny. 

Often what would happen in Greece was an imbalance of power, with some city-states taking on more substantial influence and dominating neighboring, slightly weaker, city-states. Unity among the city-states was usually the result of impending war or conflict, such as the Persian Wars between 492-449 BC. 

Greece was a peninsula that later became a nation during the Hellenistic period following Alexander the Great’s death. He has been credited with spreading the Greek language, art, culture, and city planning, which slowly resulted in a more unified nation. 

9. A Divine Love of Color

The misconception about the Greeks and color originated from their statues and impressive buildings like the Parthenon, Temple of Zeus, and many other Greek temples showcased as structures void of color.

The Ancient Greeks had an affinity for marble, often their first choice of material for any construction project. Iconic buildings, which still stand today, like the Parthenon, were constructed using Pentelic marble. Most temples and statues would feature a mixture of marble, limestone, tufa, cut masonry, local stone, and wood.

Our knowledge of color featured on Greek statues and buildings was misguided for centuries. We believed that everything the Greeks made was an architectural and design marvel, all constructed predominantly in pure white marble. There was a preconceived notion that the Ancient Greeks had disdain towards color, and we’re now aware that wasn’t the case. Not only were their statues painted, but their buildings, like the Parthenon and other temples, all had elements of color scattered throughout. It wasn’t dull colors either. The Ancient Greeks loved bright colors, specifically purple, red, yellow, and white. However, it’s important to note that their classifications of these colors differed from ours today. For example, red to Ancient Greeks could be anything from orange to purple.

We based a lot of our understanding of the Greeks’ relationship with color on ancient buildings and statues where the paint had faded away after centuries of being hidden away or buried below the surface.

8. Spartans 

We get a lot wrong about the Spartans. It’s understandable, considering everything we’re told and shown about the mythic warriors of Ancient Greece who fought the Athenian army. However, a large part of why we get so much wrong about Spartans is because of how little we actually know about them.

We’ve gotten some key things wrong about these legendary warriors, which have been proven. For starters, Sparta wasn’t the name of an Ancient Greek city-state. Instead, it was in Lacedaemon where the Spartans lived. During the Peloponnesian War, from 431-404 BC, the warrior society of Sparta grew, taking on rival city-state Athens. Their culture was centered on military service from a young age and loyalty to the state.

From as young as seven, Spartan boys began training and state-sponsored education. They were taught the concept of being a Spartan, which meant understanding duty to their state, endurance, and discipline. Any healthy man became a Spartan soldier. 

Perhaps the biggest misconception about the Spartans was their relationship with the rest of Greece. While the unification of Greece was slow, the Spartans were not the champions of the Greek cause as much as we’ve been made to believe. They chose not to join the all-Greek alliance leading up to the Greco-Persian war because of their anti-democratic views. While they were brave warriors who fought alongside the Greeks in the end, they were not the infallible heroes they’ve been made out to be. 

7. Pederastic Mentorship in Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greece, there was a common practice of young Greek boys taking on apprenticeships with older men. This wasn’t just in Athens, but throughout Ancient Greece, and even included Spartans. It was their version of formal education. Young boys needed to gain apprenticeships to progress in Greek society.

There were rules to a relationship between a mentor and his mentee. For starters, it only lasted until the mentee grew a beard. Second, the mentor was the dominant. The basis of these mentorships was to enlighten the youth on all aspects of the world, which sometimes included sex. The Greeks’ relationship with sex wasn’t so much about love as it was about lust, desire, or aphrodisia.

The mentee was considered an eromenos, a passive partner in homosexual relationships. The mentor would determine when the eromenos was ready to integrate into Greek society as an adult. If the adult refrained from sexual relations with the young boy, it meant that boy was ready. However, if the mentor continued to engage sexually with the eromenos, they were expected to comply out of respect and gratitude. This was a common practice in Ancient Greece, although the rules varied from polis to polis.

While many today find it an abuse of power, it wasn’t viewed by the ancient world in the same way. Instead, it was just a part of growing up for boys. Sex was treated differently in the Greek world. So while certain aspects of pederasty were frowned upon, it was still a common occurrence of the time.

6. Technological Achievements Underrepresented 

There are many things that we have the Ancient Greeks to thank for that never seem to be remembered by the modern world. When we think of Ancient Greece, we think of the Gods, the wars, the Spartans, and the incredible structures they built. However, while all those things deserve attention, it’s their technological achievements we totally under-represent and often completely ignore. 

Ancient Greece was filled with some of the greatest minds the world has ever known. From Plato to Archimedes, the everyday items we have today, like alarm clocks, automatic doors, central heating, and showers, can all be traced back to these great minds, in one way or another. Famous examples of some Greek technological achievements include Plato’s creation of the first alarm clock and Archimedes with the first steam cannon. The Ancient Greeks are also credited with creating lighthouses, with the first in Alexandria, as well as clock towers, weather stations, watermills, and more.   

5. Olympic Torch Lighting Wasn’t a Greek Idea

The modern international Olympic Games began in 1896 in Athens, which was fitting, considering it had already taken place there for over half a millennium. Some aspects of the Olympic Games we just assume have existed for centuries. Considering the games’ long history, we’ve always believed that the lighting of the Olympic torch was an ancient tradition. It wasn’t. 

The history of the Olympic torch relay actually dates back to Berlin in 1936. Dr. Carl Diem was inspired by the writings of Plutarch and Ancient Greek drawings to create the Olympic torch, which became a tradition. It was conceived and paid for by Nazi Germany just three years before the Second World War began. The project was led by the Nazi propaganda master Joseph Goebbels. 

During the Second World War, no Olympic Games were held. When they began again in 1948, the Olympic torch returned, but it had a new message: one of peace. It was run through a devastated Europe from ancient Olympia to London. The first torchbearer started the relay by putting down his arms, removing his army uniform, and taking the blazing staff on the first leg of its journey. 

4. Trojan War

There’s a lot of debate surrounding the Trojan War. Most people know all about this war, which pitted the Ancient Greeks against the people of Troy in western Anatolia. We’re aware of the famous Trojan Horse, gifted to the people of Troy as a deception to get Greek soldiers inside the city walls. From there, the Greek soldiers decimated the city, killing the men and taking its women. There’s only one problem: we’re not sure any of this actually happened. 

For a long time, this story wasn’t treated as a myth or a legend, but as fact. The truth of the matter is that we’ve got no evidence to support the existence of the Trojan War, the wooden horse, or just about anything to do with this legendary story. We only know of the legend because it is celebrated in ancient Greek plays and texts such as Homer’s Odyssey and Iliad. It eventually made its way to literature from the Romans, like Virgil’s Aeneid.

While ruins of Troy exist in Anatolia, the debate of whether it’s the same city in Homer’s text remains ongoing, along with the discussion on whether there even was a war to begin with.  

3. Leonidas and the 300

Most people learned about Leonidas and the 300 soldiers from Zack Snyder’s 2006 film, 300. The film (and the graphic novel upon which it’s based), unsurprisingly, isn’t totally accurate in its recounting of the Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BCE during the Persian wars.

The legend goes that Leonidas and 300 Spartans single-handedly held off the army of Persian King Xerxes I. However, the truth is more nuanced, as it adds more context to how they got there, how true the numbers were, and, of course, that whole “the Spartans fought alone” thing. 

When the Greco-Persian Wars began, King Xerxes I sent a vast army estimated to have been between 70,000 and 300,000 men to advance from the south. Leonidas had a far smaller army of only 6,000 to 7,000 soldiers that followed him into battle. His army was comprised of Greek soldiers from various city-states, and of course his 300 Spartans. The far smaller army held off the Persians for three days until a betrayal gave Xerxes an advantage. 

Ephialtes, a citizen of Greece, betrayed his country and the army by telling Xerxes of the path around Thermopylae. He even led a portion of the Persian army along the trail. The Persians decimated part of the Greek Army, forcing a retreat. However, Leonidas, 300 of his bodyguards, a few helots, and 1,100 Boeatians stayed and continued to fight. A withdrawal would defy Spartan laws and customs.

The details of the battle have never been fully agreed on. Most believe that Leonidas and his army fought bravely but ultimately met their end at the hands of a much larger Persian invasion. Some, however, believe that there were survivors, and even consider Leonidas to have been one of them. Unfortunately, there’s no definitive proof of either theory. 

2. The Burning of the Alexandria Library 

The Library of Alexandria was one of Ancient Greece’s most famous examples of its influence and power in the ancient world. The Alexandria Library was a hub for scholars from around the globe who sought to peruse the books and scrolls of ancient civilizations. 

When Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, the knowledge he’d gained during his lifetime of conquering and exploring the world survived. It motivated a movement to preserve knowledge and share it on a much grander scale than previously practiced. Creation of the library was spearheaded by Demetrius of Phaleron, a disgraced Athenian politician who became the advisor to King Ptolemy I Soter.

By 283 BC, the library was finished. Estimates range from 200,000 to nearly a million original texts were collected from around the world and stored in this hub of knowledge until its destruction in 48 BC. 

The exact reason the Library of Alexandria burned down has often been blamed on a Muslim Army. However, it was actually just an accidental casualty of war. When Julius Caesar got involved in the Egyptian civil war between Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII, he sided with Cleopatra. This led to him being besieged in the great harbor by Ptolemy and his forces. Caesar saw only one way out: blast the enemy forces. In doing so, Caesar and his men destroyed parts of the harbor and started a fire that spread and eventually consumed the Library of Alexandria and its hundreds of thousands of ancient texts, almost all of which are now gone forever.

1. A Shaky, Somewhat Uninspired History of Democracy

The Ancient Greeks are often credited with the birth of democracy. In a sense, this is true. However, our perception of what Greek democracy looked like seems to glorify something that wasn’t as impressive as the democracies we know today.

Democracy began in Greece when Athenian leader Cleisthenes introduced the new system, known as demokratia, to the people of Greece in 507 BC. The word demokratia came from the combination of demos, meaning ‘the people,’ and Kratos, meaning ‘power’.

The point of this new system of ‘rule by the people’ was to create more peace and stability. To have a system where an unpopular government was voted out, rather than removed through uprising or revolution.

However, their democracy wasn’t something to be lauded. Yes, it was a first of its kind, and it would become more inclusive and representative of all people in the future. Still, in Ancient Greece, it represented only a select segment of the population. Only free men were considered citizens in Athens. This meant women had no representation, and weren’t voters or active in the political system.  

The way the Ancient Greek government functioned is also something we often forget. Every year, 500 names were chosen from all Athenian citizens. Those 500 people would serve their government for a year. They were legislators and crafted laws on which the entire Athenian population would vote. This meant their democracy was direct democracy, which hasn’t translated into present-day democracies. Most modern democracies are instead representative democracies.

For all the praise we give the Ancient Greeks for their creation of democracy, we often overlook their own shortcomings in their own creation. While it took centuries to remedy these flaws, some are still being contended with today.

In the past, we have traveled from country to country and explored some of the eeriest and weirdest mysteries hidden in their sordid histories. But now we are going into the distant past, all the way back to Ancient Greece, to take a look at some of the most peculiar secrets and enigmas that they have to offer.

10. Did Euxitheos Kill Herodes?

Classic Greece produced ten public speakers so admired for their skill and eloquence that they became known as the Ten Attic Orators. The earliest of them was Antiphon of Rhamnus, a 5th-century BC statesman who put his rhetorical abilities to use in the court of law, thus providing us with some of the first recorded instances of legal cases presented in front of a democratic jury.

One such oration is titled “On the Murder of Herodes” and it furnishes us with an ancient Greek murder mystery. One day, two men named Euxitheos and Herodes left together on a ship from Mytilene, bound for Ainos. A storm forced the ship to dock in an unnamed harbor, at which point the two men sought shelter. Exactly how many people were inside this shelter is unknown, but with nothing else to do, the men passed the night by getting drunk. The next day – no more Herodes. He had disappeared and could not be found after two days of searching. 

Eventually, once the weather cleared, Euxitheos continued his voyage, but, upon returning to Mytilene, he was met with a charge of murder brought on by Herodes’s relatives. He was taken to Athens to stand trial.

Unfortunately, Antiphon’s oration does not include the verdict, so we will never know how Herodes disappeared and if Euxitheos was found guilty of his murder or not.

9. What Happened to Athena Parthenos?

For hundreds of years, the statue of Athena Parthenos was one of the most prized monuments in Athens, if not all of Greece, positioned in a place of honor inside the inner chamber of the Parthenon. It was a chryselephantine sculpture, meaning that it was made out of wood layered with gold and ivory, and stood almost 40 feet in height. The construction of this marvelous statue was attributed to Phidias, who spent almost a decade working on it before dedicating it sometime around 438 BC.

Unfortunately, we don’t know what happened to this masterpiece of classic Greek art. We know that around 150 years after its construction, an Athenian tyrant named Lachares had to strip some of the gold sheets off to pay his soldiers. We also know that around 165 BC the statue was damaged in a fire, but was later repaired. 

After that, details get a bit murky and we have only hypotheses as to what happened to it. Since the city was sacked several times by Germanic and Slavic tribes, it is possible that the statue was destroyed on one such occasion. However, since the worship of Athena had also fallen out of favor by that point, it is possible that the people of Athens themselves plundered the sculpture for its valuable materials.

There is one later account that mentions its existence during the 10th century AD, claiming that it was moved to Constantinople. If this is true, then the statue of Athena Parthenos could have survived until the 15th century, when the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople.

8. Why Was the Atlantis Trilogy Never Finished?

Most people have probably heard of Atlantis, the mythical island that sunk into the ocean, but they might not know that the origin of this story was Plato, the Athenian philosopher. According to Plato, thousands and thousands of years before his time, Atlantis was this giant island, which was rich and powerful and possessed a mighty navy, unlike anything the world had ever seen. With this navy, Atlantis conquered all of its neighbors, then northern Africa, and made it into the Mediterranean as far as Italy. 

But the Atlantean armada proved to be no match for Athens, who took them on alone, beat them soundly, and then liberated all the territories enslaved by their foes. Following this defeat, Atlantis lost the favor of the gods and suffered a massive earthquake, followed by floods that submerged the entire island into the ocean.

Obviously, nobody is suggesting any of that actually happened. The mystery here lies not with what Plato wrote, but what he didn’t write. He announced that he would do a whole trilogy on Atlantis, but he never did, even though he had plenty of time. Plato wrote the first book on the subject, Timaeus, circa 360 BC, and he then had 12-13 years to finish his trilogy. He followed it up with a second book, Critias, which has no ending and breaks off mid-sentence. This begs the question, why would…

7. Was There a Real Labyrinth?

Speaking of famous Greek myths, let’s move on to the legend of the labyrinth and the deadly Minotaur that lurked within. Here’s a quick refresher course if you forgot the story. King Minos of Crete had Daedalus construct a complex maze-like structure called the labyrinth, which contained the half-bull, half-man monster known as the Minotaur. Every nine years, Minos made King Aegeus of Athens give him seven boys and seven girls who would be sent inside the labyrinth to be eaten by the Minotaur. And this continued for decades, until the hero of the story, Theseus, entered the labyrinth and slain the Minotaur.

We’re going to go out on a limb here and say that the Minotaur wasn’t real, but the same cannot be said about the labyrinth, at least not definitively. Although no tangible signs of its existence have ever been uncovered, it seems that every few centuries, there is renewed interest in the labyrinth from people who believe that the legend might have been inspired by a real structure, most likely located near Knossos. In ancient times, both Roman and Ptolemaic Egypt writers treated the labyrinth as being real. Then, almost 1500 years later, Byzantine historian Nikephoros Gregoras wrote that the labyrinth was a vast man-made cave system carved out of limestone, but located near the ancient city of Gortyn, not Knossos.

During the late 19th century, British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans conducted major excavations on the island of Crete and discovered the long-lost Minoan civilization. Although initially a skeptic, he came to believe that the labyrinth was real, placing it again near Knossos. And just a decade ago, a new archaeological team uncovered underground tunnels in an old stone quarry, near Gortyn this time, once again opening up the debate over the existence of the labyrinth.

6. What Is the Socratic Problem?

You have all probably heard of Socrates. Today, the guy is considered the father of Western philosophy, but it’s a lucky thing that people even remember his name, let alone his accomplishments. That’s because Socrates never bothered to write anything down. Undoubtedly, he would have completely faded into obscurity, ever mere decades after his death if not for his students who carried on and expounded on his ideas, giving credit to the man who started it all. However, because he is only known indirectly, it makes it hard to distinguish between “Socrates the character” and “Socrates the real historical figure.” Sometimes, various accounts of the philosopher are not only incongruous with each other, but downright contradictory.

This has given birth to what scholars refer to as the “Socratic problem.” Men like Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes are our main sources for Socrates, but each one offers his own interpretation of the philosopher, not an accurate picture. When it comes to the real Socrates, the only thing we know is that we know nothing.

5. What Was the Meaning of the Delphic Epsilon?

In ancient times, Delphi was a sacred site that attracted countless visitors from all over the world who traveled far and wide to hear the prophecies of the Pythia, the Oracle of Delphi. The priestess served her customers inside the most imposing structure at Delphi, the Temple of Apollo. And as visitors approached the temple, they saw that the pediment of the building bore an unexpected symbol – the letter E or epsilon. But what did it mean?

This question has puzzled historians and philosophers since ancient times, showing that the true meaning of the Delphic Epsilon was never common knowledge. Plutarch was the first to talk about it, writing a whole treatise titled On the ‘E’ at Delphi. He offered several possible explanations, although he remained uncertain of its significance. He did provide us with a history of the symbol. The earliest one came from the 6th century BC and was made of wood. That one burned down and was replaced with one made of bronze which, in turn, was replaced by one made of gold, which still existed during Plutarch’s time, almost 700 years later. The fact that the symbol kept getting replaced and upgraded, as well as its positioning above the entrance both suggested that it had an important meaning, we just don’t know what it was. 

Nowadays, the symbol has been co-opted by conspiracy theorists who have linked it to aliens, secret societies, and secret alien societies. But truth be told, there’s a lot about the Oracle at Delphi that has been kept secret, and it seems like the Delphic E is destined to remain a mystery.

4. Did the Wife Poison Her Husband?

We return to Antiphon and his speeches to explore another ancient Greek murder mystery, this time a suspected case of poisoning. Both the victim and his alleged killer are unnamed in the case, but they were husband and wife. One day, the man dined with a friend of his named Philoneos and both fell ill soon after. They died a few days apart, but not before the man had a chance to tell his son from his first marriage that he had been poisoned and to instruct him to punish his killer.

The son was the one who brought the charge of murder against his stepmother. The speech indicates that this happened years after the poisoning had occurred, suggesting that the son was still a young boy at the time. 

The way the prosecution presented the case, the wife didn’t actually do the poisoning herself but instead tricked Philoneos’s mistress into doing it. The other woman thought she was administering a love potion to restore his desire for her. Since that woman was a slave, she did not receive the same fair hearing as the wife. Instead, she was tortured until she confessed her guilt and then put to death. As for the accused, the speech, once again, omits the verdict, so her fate was lost to history.

3. What Happened to the Statue of Zeus?

When it comes to Greek sculptures, there was no work greater than the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. It was, after all, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Standing 40 feet tall, it depicted the king of the gods sitting on his throne, with his scepter in one hand and a statue of Nike in the other, and an olive garland crowning his head. Like the statue of Athena Parthenos, this was a chryselephantine statue covered with ebony and sheets of gold, and it’s not surprising since it was made by the same guy – Phidias. 

Unfortunately, also like the statue of Athena, its ultimate fate remains a mystery as the statue of Zeus simply disappears from the historical record. According to the Roman historian Suetonius, Caligula wanted to have the statue brought to Rome, so he could chop off Zeus’s head and replace it with his own. The emperor was murdered before he had a chance to do this, but whether or not the statue was moved is unknown. 

Assuming the statue survived Caligula’s plan, then it could have been destroyed during the reigns of Theodosius I or II. They were both Christian emperors who rallied against the old traditions and had many pagan temples closed down, even demolished. Many believe that one of them had the Statue of Zeus transported to Constantinople to be burned down. If, somehow, it still survived, then it likely met its end during the 6th century, when the temple at Olympia was destroyed by earthquakes.

2. Was Homer Real?

The name “Homer” will be familiar to a lot of people and we’re not talking about the one who works in sector 7G of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. No, we’re talking about the original Homer, who is regarded as the founder of ancient Greek literature, thanks mainly to his two epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. However, there is an ongoing debate about whether or not Homer even existed.

This is known as the Homeric Question and it stems from the fact that he lived a lot earlier than people might think and that almost nothing is known about his actual life. If there was a real Homer, he would have been around during the 8th century BC, which is hundreds of years before Greece became the cultural center of the world and had great poets and playwrights such as Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus. Even in their own time, Homer was an ancient figure from a bygone age.

The Homeric Question is actually two-fold. The first part is whether Homer was real or not, but the second is if he actually wrote the epics he is known for. He would have lived at a time when Greek writing was still in its infancy and stories were mostly passed down orally, so he could have simply been a bard who retold tales that had been around for ages. There are many scholars who consider that the Iliad and the Odyssey are hundreds, maybe even a thousand years older than we believe. 

And then, of course, there are those who don’t consider Homer to be an actual person. They see him as either an amalgamation of real writers or a symbolic spirit that the Greeks gave to their most beloved works of literature whose true author was unknown.

1. What Happened During the Eleusinian Mysteries?

The Greeks were awfully fond of their secret rituals and, perhaps, none were more famous than the Eleusinian Mysteries, the rites observed for almost 2000 years to honor Demeter, goddess of agriculture. 

According to the myth, Hades fell in love with Persephone, Demeter’s daughter, so he kidnapped her and took her into the underworld. Due to her grief, the goddess stopped looking after the crops, causing widespread droughts and famines throughout the world. Eventually, Zeus forced Hades to return Persephone to Demeter, but the deal was that she had to come back to the underworld annually and spend part of the year with Hades. During that time, the ground became cold and hard and nothing would grow, and that’s how the seasons came to be.

During Demeter’s search for her daughter, she arrived at the city of Eleusis. Disguised as an old woman, she served as nurse for the queen’s boy. Eventually, she revealed her true self and the people of Eleusis built Demeter a temple and started holding the Mysteries there to celebrate the reunion of mother and daughter which made the crops grow again.

That’s the mythological side of the ritual, which is a lot better known than the real side since the people who participated took their vows of secrecy very seriously. Two Mysteries took place every year – the Lesser Mysteries in the spring and the Greater Mysteries in September. The tradition started with the initiates walking from Athens to Eleusis. Everyone could observe the procession, but as far as what went on inside the temple, that was strictly hush-hush. 

There would be fasting, purification rites, sacrifices, and offerings. That’s the standard stuff, but some scholars think the ritual could have even involved human sacrifice, as a maiden would be killed to symbolize the plight of Persephone. The true extent of the Eleusinian Mysteries will forever remain hidden.