European – Listorati https://listorati.com Fascinating facts and lists, bizarre, wonderful, and fun Mon, 09 Sep 2024 16:57:23 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.7.1 https://listorati.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/listorati-512x512-1.png European – Listorati https://listorati.com 32 32 215494684 10 Wannabe European Countries You Might Not Have Heard Of https://listorati.com/10-wannabe-european-countries-you-might-not-have-heard-of/ https://listorati.com/10-wannabe-european-countries-you-might-not-have-heard-of/#respond Mon, 09 Sep 2024 16:57:23 +0000 https://listorati.com/10-wannabe-european-countries-you-might-not-have-heard-of/

The recent Scottish independence referendum ended with a defeat for the nationalists, but the mere fact that it was held at all shows how far European secession movements have come in recent years. Even while the European Union has promoted greater integration across the continent, a wide variety of regions and ethnic minorities have begun to press their claims for independence. While would-be states like Catalonia, Flanders, and Scotland are well-known, Europe boasts a bewildering array of wannabe countries—the European Free Alliance links over 40 nationalist movements, and there are many more outside of it.

10Galicia

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Galicia is an autonomous region in northwest Spain, on the border with Portugal. Galicians consider themselves to be a distinct ethnic and cultural group, and the Spanish government recognizes them as a historical nationality within Spain. But for many in Galicia, that’s just not enough and there are plenty of nationalist and separatist parties on the regional political scene. Most of them act jointly as part of the Bloque Nacionalista Galego (BNG), which works for further devolution of power from the central government to the regional assembly. Many BNG members also seek eventual complete independence from Spain, hoping to form a new republic within the European Union. Following a split within the BNG, independence is also espoused by the rising left-wing radical Alternativa Galega de Esquerda (AGE).

Despite the strong cultural identity of the Galician people, the electoral performance of the BNG has typically been relatively modest. Meanwhile, AGE has made impressive gains, winning 14 percent of the vote in the 2012 regional elections, but remains something of a fringe party. With this in mind, it seems that the dream of Galician independence is unlikely to become a reality within the next few years—but it certainly isn’t dead either.

9The Aland Islands

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An archipelago of tiny islands in the Baltic Sea, Aland has already obtained a surprising amount of autonomy while officially remaining part of Finland. Although the islands only have around 28,000 inhabitants, approximately 0.5 percent of the total Finnish population, they have their own parliament, which has extensive powers—including the right to veto any attempt to limit those powers by the central Finnish government. Regional citizenship is required to own land or vote in local elections. Aland is also the only region of Finland to have a single official language—Swedish.

Under the Act on the Autonomy of Aland, the islands are also completely demilitarized, have their own police force and postage stamps, and can issue their own passports. The islands were able to obtain this level of autonomy after Finland declared independence in 1917. At the time, Aland islanders voted overwhelmingly to leave and join Sweden. Finland refused to give up sovereignty and the League of Nations ruled that Helsinki could keep the islands as long as they were granted significant rights and protections.

The subsequent compromise has lasted for almost a century and it seems hard to believe that Aland will ever separate from Finland. However, some islanders complain that the Finnish government has not kept its promises and that it has become increasingly hard to do business in Swedish. Alands Framtid (Future of Aland), a local political party which seeks full independence for the islands as a sovereign microstate, reached almost 10 percent of the vote in the most recent regional elections.

8The Faroe Islands

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The Faroe Islands are an archipelago of 18 beautiful islands in the North Atlantic. Located roughly halfway between Scotland and Iceland, they’re majestically isolated from all of their neighbors. Ruled by Denmark since the 14th century, the islands are currently a self-governing nation under the Danish crown.

National sentiment has a long history in the Faroes—they first tried to hold an independence referendum in the chaos following the end of World War II. Although the secessionists won by a small margin (48.7 percent of the vote, compared to 47.2 percent against), the Danish parliament opposed independence, arguing that a majority had not voted for it. Further confusing matters, the Danish prime minister supported the secessionists and announced that the islands would be granted independence. Two days of confusion followed, until the King of Denmark annulled the referendum and dissolved the Faroese parliament. New elections were held, but this time the parties that favored association with Denmark managed a narrow win and negotiated home rule for the islands.

The independence question subsided until 2011, when a proposed Faroese constitution proved controversial. The Danish government claimed the document, which would have put even more powers in Faroese hands, was “incompatible” with Denmark’s own constitution, telling the islands to chose between withdrawing the document or immediate independence.

For fairly practical reasons, the Faroese government chose to withdraw the draft. According to a prominent local politician, the islands are still too dependent on Danish subsidies to consider full independence. In the meantime, pro-independence parties have a majority in the local parliament and are doubtless waiting for the moment when they can afford to govern without outside financial support.

7Corsica

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Corsicans proudly claim that they’ve been ruled many times, but never conquered. Although the island has been a region of France for hundreds of years, its people still don’t consider themselves French, Italian, or anything else. They’re simply Corsicans.

The island first proclaimed its independence back in the 18th century, forming a republic which lasted for 14 years before it was annexed by France in 1769. Often neglected by the French state, the island saw an upsurge of nationalism in the second half of the 20th century, when several separatist movements were founded. Perhaps the most infamous is the National Liberation Front of Corsica (FLNC), a militant group which has carried out bombings, bank robberies, extortion, and arson in the name of independence. A separate nationalist group was responsible for the 1998 assassination of the top-ranking French official on the island.

In recent decades, the French government has granted more autonomy to the island and backed programs to protect the Corsican language, undermining local support for the nationalists. Nevertheless, the fight for Corsican independence continues, with the FLNC claiming responsibility for sporadic bombings over the past decade.

6Sardinia

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Unlike their Corsican neighbors, the nationalist movement on the Italian island of Sardinia has sought independence through non-violent means. This model has huge support from the Sardinian people. According to a 2014 poll conducted by the universities of Cagliari and Edinburgh, a whopping 87 percent of Sardinians want further powers for the island’s local government, while around 41 percent are in favor of full independence immediately.

However, so far this support has failed to translate into electoral success for pro-independence parties. In the 2014 elections, pro-sovereignty parties only took around 18 percent of the total vote, while the pro-independence candidate for regional President came third with only 10.8 percent of the votes. In fact, one of the largest pro-independence blocs was left without any seats in the local parliament at all, due to a law which requires coalitions to secure at least 10 percent of the total vote in order to be eligible for candidates to be elected.

However, the independence movement is far from dead, with supporters claiming an online referendum should be held. One newly founded group is even suggesting the island should secede from Italy and join Switzerland instead.

5Transdniestria

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Located between Romania and Ukraine, Moldova is a tiny state about the size of Maryland. Since 1990, around 10 percent of its territory has formed an even tinier breakaway state known as Transdniestria, or Transnistria, or the Pridnestrovskaya Moldavskaya Respublika.

Moldova was part of the Soviet Union, gaining independence as the USSR began to split up in the early 1990s. But the Russian-speakers of Transdniestria didn’t want to be a minority in a Romanian-speaking country and refused to join the new state. Tensions simmered until 1992, when an armed conflict broke out. Russian military support for the secessionists meant that Moldova was unable to impose its authority on Transdniestria, and the region has been a de facto state ever since.

Nowadays, Transdniestria has its own constitution, flag, national anthem, coat of arms, government, parliament, currency, and military—the only thing it lacks is international recognition. In fact, Transdniestria has never been recognized by a single member state of the United Nations, and is thus officially still considered part of Moldova. Transdniestria has attempted to shore up its position with continued independence referendums, the last being held in 2006. A massive 97 percent of voters supported independence, with the possibility of free association with Russia, but even the referendum hasn’t been recognized by other countries yet.

4South Tyrol

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A mountainous geographical region based on a former province of the Austrian Empire, Tyrol is currently split between Austria and Italy, with South Tyrol as an autonomous province of Italy with a large German-speaking population. Under Benito Mussolini, the fascist government tried to Italianize South Tyrol by banning the use of the German language, but such policies actually increased local identity, culminating in a series of bombings carried out by the South Tyrolean Liberation Committee in the 1960s (the organization no longer exists and the current secessionist movement espouses non-violence).

These days, the province is autonomous enough that only 10 percent of taxes raised there go to the central government. Despite this, there is widespread support for political parties advocating reunification with Austria. Until this can be organized, they believe that the province should secede and form an interim Free State of South Tyrol. Such parties usually control around a third of the South Tyrolean Provincial Council, although their popularity varies depending on the political climate.

3Venice

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During a weekend when the eyes of the world were focused on the Russian-backed referendum in Crimea, a referendum for independence from Italy went almost unnoticed. An estimated two million residents of the Italian region Veneto, whose capital is Venice, voted overwhelmingly to declare independence and reform the ancient Venetian Republic. The referendum was conducted online, using digital ID numbers to identify eligible voters. A massive 89 percent voted in favor of secession, surprising pollsters, who had previously estimated only around 65 percent were in favor.

The Italian government refused to recognize the referendum, saying that it was not organized by any official body and consequently open to manipulation, but it’s undeniable that nationalist movements have strong support within the region. Veneto is one of Italy’s richest regions, and locals feel that they don’t get much as they give from the government, complaining that most of their taxes go to subsidize poorer regions of Southern Italy. The referendum won’t result in immediate independence, but it’s hard to believe the issue will simply go away either.

2North Cyprus

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A large island in the Eastern Mediterranean, Cyprus has long been split between a Greek majority and a Turkish minority. When the country became a member of the European Union back in 2004, they made it without the Turkish north, which has effectively long been an independent country. The issue dates back to 1974, when the Cypriot National Guard, with support from the Greek Junta, attempted a putsch with the goal of making Cyprus part of Greece. In response, Turkey launched an invasion, claiming the coup violated a treaty signed between the United Kingdom, Cyprus, Greece, and Turkey.

The Turkish invasion eventually resulted in the island being split in two, with the dividing line passing right through the capital of Nicosia. The northern third became the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus in 1983. The new republic has never been widely recognized or accepted into the UN and remains heavily economically dependent on Turkey. This dependence, as well as the possibility of a Cypriot entrance into the EU, sparked hopes for reunification. In 2004, a referendum was held proposing to merge the island into a federated state. In the north, the Turks approved of the plan, while the vast majority of Greeks rejected the proposal. As a result, Cyprus remains split to this day.

1Republika Srpska

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In English, Republika Srpska means “Serbian Republic,” but is not to be confused with the Republic of Serbia, since it is actually one of two entities comprising Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since the 1990s, the tiny Balkan country has been split between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. Bosniaks and Croats make up the majority in the former, while Serbs are dominant in the latter.

Republika Srpska
was founded during the breakup of the former Yugoslavia, right after the referendum on independence in Bosnia and Herzegovina. While most of the Bosnian parliament proclaimed the new republic, ethnic Serbian deputies refused to support the secession and held their own assembly in the city of Banja Luka, forming their own state in response. The infamous Bosnian War quickly followed.

After the war, Republika Srpska became an autonomous entity within Bosnia, but many Bosnian Serbs still hoped to form an independent state, which would eventually merge with Serbia. The success of Kosovo’s independence movement fueled these dreams, with Serbian leaders claiming that if Kosovo had the right to separate from Serbia, then they had the right to separate from Bosnia and Herzegovina as well. Although still part of Bosnia, Republika Srpska has recently sent their own representative to Brussels, the seat of the European Union. Nobody from the EU attended the ceremony marking the event, but it created even more tension with Bosniak officials and sent yet another hint that the Serbs see their future as lying outside of Bosnia.

Petar Todorovski is a freelance writer.

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10 Conspiracy Theories About The European Union https://listorati.com/10-conspiracy-theories-about-the-european-union/ https://listorati.com/10-conspiracy-theories-about-the-european-union/#respond Tue, 07 May 2024 08:48:08 +0000 https://listorati.com/10-conspiracy-theories-about-the-european-union/

The most-enduring conspiracy theories tend to be those that focus on a powerful elite pulling the puppet strings of the world to manipulate it to their liking. For an entity as powerful as the European Union, it is pretty much inevitable that such theories will form. From military might and monetary policy, to language and culture, the EU oversees almost every aspect of European life and, depending on what you believe, they know exactly what they’re doing.

See Also: Top 10 Reasons The European Union Is Doomed

10 The Kalergi Plan


Also known as the Coudenhove-Kalergi Plan, this theory is based on the work of Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi, an Austrian-Japanese politician who also had Checkoslovakian and French citizenship. This diverse background, along with living through two world wars, undoubtedly helped shape the political opinions that have made him such a large figure in conspiracy circles.

Kalergi’s “plan” is really the views he expressed in several books, where he states he believes the world will move towards continental-based federations, where Europe would function as one entity, the Americas another, and so on. He also believed that, as “space, time, and prejudice” disappeared, humanity would evolve into a single race.

As you can imagine, this has been seized upon as proof that European elites are trying to wipe out European cultures and ethnicities. Although most theorists have no issue referring to the Kalergi plan directly, it has also been repackaged as Le Grand Replacement, and as a plan for EU officials to use the current migrant crisis to create an Arab Europe—Eurabia.

9 New World Order


Another reason certain conspiracy theories persist longer than others is that they are more adaptable. For example, it’s easy to convince people that something new being added to your water is bad, but when people have been drinking fluoride their whole lives, they’re not as scared of it. But theories about people having ulterior motives to seize control will always be relevant, which makes it easy to apply theories about a New World Order to anyone.

Although he was far from the first to do so, leading Brexiteer Nigel Farage came under fire for applying that theory to the EU in an interview, when he asked “what percentage of the UK actually believe in the United States of Europe, actually believe in this New World Order?”. Along with the Kalergi plan, the theory of the New World Order has long been associated with anti-semitism, so it didn’t help when he described Jewish billionaire George Soros as “the biggest threat to the entire Western World”, or said that banks like Goldman-Sachs want to “take down our democratic systems” and see the EU as “the forerunner of global government”. The difficulty with theories such a this is that, unlike the effects of fluoride on the human mind, it is impossible to definitively prove that people are not conspiring together, meaning the theory is free to continue ad nauseum.

8 No Scots Allowed


Most people are probably aware of the parallel pushes for independence in both Scotland and Catalonia, the key difference being that the Scottish lost a legally binding referendum, while the Catalonians won an illegitimate one. Since then, Catalonian leaders have been arrested, while Scottish leaders have called for a second referendum, due to the fact that they are being taken out of the EU, despite 62% voting to stay.

While there is no precedent for a part of the EU declaring independence from an EU member state, the general consensus is that any newly formed states would have to reapply for membership, and this is where the conspiracy comes in. Since all EU member states have to approve any new additions unanimously, it is easy to prevent any nation from joining. So if Scotland declared independence, Spain would want to keep it out of the EU, so that Catalonians would be too fearful to declare independence for themselves, as Spain could just veto them too. Obviously, the existence of that threat also serves to deter Scotland from declaring independence in the first place.

Instinctively, most Spanish politicians will oppose Catalonian independence; not many people sit around hoping part of their country breaks away. But Spanish government policy has always been that it will not veto Scottish independence or EU membership. In reality, having Catalonia as a non-EU country right on their doorstep would be terrible for Spain, and the EU, not to mention that most people on both sides would expect free movement. Similarly, the EU would rather work with Scotland than against it, and would probably even use Scotland to show the rest of the UK “what it’s missing” by not being a member. So although the threat of a Spanish veto is a very effective talking point, it will never be much of a walking point.

If you think that’s just wishful thinking, remember that Spain was willing to veto any Brexit deal that cut them off from Gibraltar. Even though a hard border in Gibraltar would have no effect on the Spanish economy, but would devastate Gibraltar and make it more likely to rejoin Spain, they still wanted access. So if the Spanish government was willing to fight for 300,000 Brits, they’ll fight for 7.5 million Catalonians and 5.4 million Scots.

7EU Army


In the lead up to the Brexit vote in 2016, there was much discussion about the creation of an EU army, one that would see EU citizens aged 16-25 conscripted for service. Additionally, there were fears that state militaries could be deployed on behalf of the EU, without the government of that member state having the final say. And that’s where the theory falls down.

Like most big decisions in the EU, defence policy is decided on a unanimous basis, which means that any member state has the power to completely prevent an EU army. Even if national leaders wanted to hand away their military authority, it is so easy to stop a policy like this in its tracks that it is unlikely to be tabled at all. Instead, what we see are policies that promote greater cooperation in order to streamline EU defense and save costs, such as PESCO (Permanent Structured Cooperation). This opt-in policy has been taken up by 25 out of 28 member states, and involves projects like building shared hubs, and establishing a single cybersecurity network.

The only time an EU member state’s army is obliged to be deployed is if there is an attack on the soil of another EU member state, in which case the rest of the EU must come to its defence.

6 Aachen Conspiracy


On January 22 1963, French President Charles de Gaulle and German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer signed the Elysee Treaty on behalf of their two nations. The treaty was designed to promote cooperation, rather than rivalry, between Europe’s two biggest economies. The actual text of the treaty itself is quite sparse, essentially stipulating that leaders of both countries should meet regularly, coordinate on foreign policy, and promote each others’ cultures.

On January 22 2019, 55 years after the treaty was first signed, French President Emmanuel Macron and German Chancellor Angela Merkel met in the German city of Aachen to sign an updated version. In the lead up to this, Eurosceptics like former Presidential candidate Marine LePen used the summit to push what has become known as the Aachen Conspiracy.

One of the main claims was that France would share its seat on the UN Security Council with Germany, as France is a permanent member while Germany is not. Obviously, that’s not how the UN actually works, and France can’t just “share” its seat with another country (plus, Germany has a temporary seat now anyway). But the conspiracy plays into historical French fears of a “German-occupied France”, harking back to the days when the Nazis had taken over. Theorists also claimed that President Macron was about to cede control of Alsace-Lorraine, a sizeable chunk of land between France and Germany, with almost 2 million inhabitants. The area was originally ceded from France to Germany in 1871, then back to France in 1919, then Germany in 1940, and then France in 1945. Currently, it is primarily German-speaking, but with the Aachen summit having come and gone, it seems Germany will have to wait at least a few more years before it’s their turn again.

5 Trump’s Theory


It wouldn’t be much of a list of conspiracy theories without a mention of everybody’s favourite current President of the United States, Donald Trump. From Birtherism to 9/11, Trump has long been associated with conspiracy theories. Usually, these are established theories that he hears and repeats, but occasionally, he floats his own original ideas, such as the EU being set up as a way to take advantage of the US.

Trump first made these claims on the Fox Business show “Mornings with Maria”, in which he stated that Europe was treating the US even worse than China, and that “European nations were set up in order to take advantage of the United States”. Obviously, most European countries are much older than the US, but Trump clarified his theory at a rally a few days later when he said that it was the European Union, not nations, that was set up to take advantage of the US, stating “We love the countries of the European Union. But the European Union, of course, was set up to take advantage of the United States”. Although it is true that the US runs a trade deficit with the EU, the original intention for the establishment of a European community was to stop European countries bombing each other, a tactic that has proven quite successful. While a trade surplus with the US certainly adds to the economic advantages of not being blown up, it was far from the driving factor behind the formation of a coal and steel market 70 years ago.

4Rothschild Family


Since the Rothschild family allegedly owns so many banks and media outlets across the world, it is pretty easy to tie them into any conspiracy that involves either money or news. Theories involving the Rothschilds and their fortune famously go all the way back to the Napoleonic wars, and basically boil down to them using their influence to steer the world in the direction they want. According to the “mainstream” conspiracy theories, the Rothschilds aren’t literally choosing winners and losers, but can offer tremendous financial support to anything they approve of, while turning the media on anything they do not.

But according to some lesser-known theories, the family is doing a lot more than simply nudging things in the right direction; they are straight-up choosing who will lead what governments or international bodies. In France, President Emmanuel Macron is the subject of one such theory, based mainly on the fact that he spent four years working at Rothschild & Co. investment bank. Similarly, an Egyptian news anchor used a photo of a young Angela Merkel with two friends, allegedly future Prime Minister Theresa May and future CIA Director Gina Haspel, as evidence that the Rothschilds had been grooming these women for office their whole lives. Unsurprisingly, many of Europe’s top politicians have some link to the Rothschilds, making this a theory that will likely endure well into the future.

3 Eurozone Crisis


The Eurozone Crisis perfectly encapsulates the EU’s main hurdle of balancing integration with independence; intended to facilitate business and encourage cross-border movement, it was brought down by the lack of fiscal alignment across the market. But despite, or perhaps because of, the fact that the reasons for the Euro crash are quite boring and complex, several conspiracies have popped up claiming to know what really caused the crisis.

Two theories involve rich members of the British elite conspiring with the US media to affect investment, which have been floated by the likes of the then Prime Minister of Greece, as well as many high ranking officials in the Spanish government. One theory claims the British manipulated the Eurozone to both profit personally, and cover up their nation’s deficit. Another states the plan was to bring down the Euro to discourage future EU projects.

As you can tell, those theories sound like they originate from the pro-EU side, but there are those in Britain and beyond who believe the EU are to blame. These theories claim that the crisis was manufactured as a way to get countries like Greece under the EU’s thumb, as a way to dissolve all nations in the EU into one, and even as a way to introduce socialism to Europe (although the two have already met).

2 Esperanto


As you may already know, Esperanto is the most widely spoken auxiliary language in the world. Created by Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof in 1887, Esperanto was made with elements from various languages, and was designed to be as easy to learn as possible. The hope was that, while it may never be anyone’s first language, it could bring the world together by being everyone’s second.

While many people loved the idea, immediately learning the language and publishing material, others were suspicious that Zamenhof had an ulterior motive. Since Zamenhof was Jewish, many claimed Esperanto was a Zionist attempt at world domination. Hitler himself even made reference to this theory in Mein Kampf. It’s hard to judge just how much of an impact this theory had on the spread and use of Esperanto, or whether a language with no native speakers would always have its limitations. All we do know is that whatever the plan was, it didn’t work.

1Finland?


For most people, conspiracy theories are usually just a bit of fun. Not many people genuinely believe that the Earth is flat, or that the Queen is a shapeshifting lizard. They’re just not realistic theories, and believing them would require you to completely change how you view the laws of the universe. But every so often, a theory comes along that is so chilling plausible it makes you question everything you think you know. Such as the theory that Finland does not exist.

This theory claims that the concept of “Finland” arose from a joint Japanese-Soviet plot during the cold war. The two nations agreed to pretend that there was a country along the Baltic sea, so that they could claim fishing rights for the area. Using parts of Sweden, Estonia, and Russia, the Soviets tricked people into thinking they were living in Finland, and built the Trans-Siberian railway as a way to smuggle the fish to Japan. In exchange for their silence and a small cut of the catch, the Japanese could fish in “Finland” as much as they liked. Some may scoff at this theory and never give it a second thought, but maybe you should take a moment to ask yourself: how confident are you that Finland really exists?

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10 European Countries That No Longer Exist https://listorati.com/10-european-countries-that-no-longer-exist/ https://listorati.com/10-european-countries-that-no-longer-exist/#respond Wed, 20 Sep 2023 06:20:36 +0000 https://listorati.com/10-european-countries-that-no-longer-exist/

The 19th and 20th centuries were a period of unprecedented change in human history. In 1807, the Napoleonic Wars were raging; in 2007, smartphones were becoming a thing. No other era in human history comes close to matching this rate of change.

And in no other place was this change faster than in Europe. As technology evolved, the borders of nations shifted, and entire states rose and fell. The 20th century in particular saw the shattering of ancient kingdoms and the birth of many new states, some of which failed to make it to the modern day. Ideologies led to new experiments and disastrous wars, and the human race saw the highest sustained period of migration in history. Not all the countries which entered this crucible made it out the other side. In this list, we’re taking a look at ten European countries that collapsed during this formative time.

10 Austria-Hungary


The Hapsburg monarchs had ruled Austria and Hungary since the 1500s. The two countries were governed in a similar way to England and Scotland before the Act of Union: While they shared a monarch, they remained independent of each other, with their own parliaments, budgets, and laws.[1]

This system was shaken by the fall of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, when the Hapsburgs joined the countries together in the Austrian Empire. While Hungary was still nominally independent and still had its own parliament, it was now part of a larger state. This arrangement hardly suited the Hungarians, who agitated for reform several times over the course of the 19th century. One reformer, Istvan Szechenyi, shocked all when he addressed the Hungarian Diet in Hungarian for the first time in 1825, before proceeding to lay out a program of reform abolishing serfdom, introducing wage labor, and founding a national bank. His plans were ignored, but the Hapsburgs were rattled.

The empire expanded over the course of the 19th century, and by 1900, it controlled dozens of different ethnic groups, from Serbs in the south to Czechs in the north and many in between. In an era of rising nationalism, the government struggled to hold the empire together, despite its powerful army and huge industrial development. (At its height, the Austrian Empire had the fourth most developed industry in the world.)

Following the devastating Austro-Prussian War, the Hapsburgs reformed the country and renamed it Austria-Hungary, granting Hungary more powers in an attempt to appease the separatists. It did little to stifle the resistance. By the outbreak of World War I, Archduke Franz Ferdinand had developed a plan to radically reform the country into the United States of Greater Austria, where the country would be broken into 13 semiautonomous states roughly following cultural boundaries. Unfortunately, the archduke was assassinated before his plans came to fruition. Following Austria-Hungary’s role in World War I, it was dismantled by the Allies and broken into several smaller successor states.

9 Czechoslovakia


In many ways, Czechoslovakia was a country born out of necessity. The archduke of Austria took the Bohemian crown in 1526, and from then on, the Czech lands were a client kingdom of the Austrian monarchy. On the other side, Slovakia was conquered by the invading Hungarians around the year 1000, becoming a part of the Kingdom of Hungary. With the formation of Austria-Hungary, they were brought together in one country. The Czech lands contained over half of the industrial development of all Austria-Hungary, and this, alongside the forced Magyarization of the Slovaks, led to people in both places agitating for independence.[2]

These efforts were successful in 1918, when World War I came to an end. The Allies recognized their independence, and Czechoslovakia was born. The new country was widely successful, and at its height, it was the tenth most industrialized country on Earth. However, border tensions with Austria and Hungary remained unresolved, and the country was occupied and significantly reduced by the Nazis during World War II.

Following the war, aspirations for the country to be a bridge between East and West came to a bitter end with the communist coup of 1948. From then until 1990, the country was a satellite of the USSR, and communist ideology was implemented. Opposition to and deviation from Soviet control led to a government purge in 1952 and a clear break with Soviet policy in the Prague Spring of 1968, in which the Soviet military was forced to intervene. Further resistance came to a head in the Velvet Revolution of 1989, which forced the collapse of the communist government. For the first time since 1938, Czechoslovakia was once again an independent country.

It wasn’t to last. Rising tensions between nationalists on both sides of the country drove a wedge through the government. In particular, many Slovaks thought the country was too heavily dominated by the Czechs, who made up over two thirds of the population and who held the national capital. On the other side, some Czechs in the government considered the poorer region of Slovakia a drain on the country’s resources. The prime ministers of both agreed to the country’s peaceful partition in 1992.

8 The Papal States

Starting in the 700s and continuing for over 1,000 years, the Pope exerted secular as well as religious influence over the people of Europe, particularly in Italy. For those who lived in the Papal States, whatever their religion, the Pope was their secular lord. However, the Pope’s actual influence was minimal, and the states were largely under the control of independent princes with their own territories. For the most part, the Papal States existed as a mechanism for protecting the Pope.[3]

The Papal States really began to grow in influence during the Renaissance, particularly after the reign of Pope Julius II, who was nicknamed the Warrior Pope, from 1503 to 1513. In the 1800s, the Papal States became an increasingly old-fashioned and backward nation, refusing to acquiesce to many of the liberal and social reforms that swept Europe at the time. By 1870, the Papal States were the only country in Europe still continuing the practice of making young boys castrati, by castrating them before puberty so that they would retain their tenor singing voices.

Italian nationalism grew in the years after the Napoleonic Wars, and by the 1860s, few Italians opposed the Kingdom of Sardinia when it went on a military campaign to unite the peninsula. The newly formed Kingdom of Italy declared Rome its capital in 1861, but a French garrison protecting the city prevented them from conquering it. This garrison was recalled at the start of the Franco-Prussian War, and the city was conquered in 1870. Rather than surrender, though, the papacy insulated itself within the Vatican, and successive Italian leaders refused to conquer it. The standoff was finally resolved in the Lateran Treaty of 1929, in which the Papal States were formally abolished, and Italy recognized the Vatican City State.

7 East Germany

Following World War II, the UK, US, and USSR agreed to divide Germany and Berlin between them. Initially, this meant that Germany was divided into Soviet, US, UK, and French zones, but the British and American zones were merged in 1947. The French agreed to let their zone join the British and American zones in 1949, and the Federal Republic of Germany was formed.[4]

Later that year, the Soviets ceded control of their zone to the German communist party, the SED. The Democratic Republic of Germany (known to the West as East Germany) was born. In the early days, the ruling German communist party often went against policy decided in Moscow. This sparked concern among Soviet leaders, so the party’s more moderate members were purged. From then on, the SED was a thoroughly communist party—sometimes even exceeding the government in Moscow. Strikingly, the SED refused to accept the liberalization policies of Gorbachev in the 1980s, sticking to an orthodox Marxist line right until the end.

Society in East Germany was highly controlled. The SED enforced strict censorship, and Marxism-Leninism was compulsory learning in schools. Though unemployment and homelessness were low, and state-funded benefits such as entertainment and health care were very affordable, if not outright free, the restrictions on everyday liberty and low income disparity led to many well-educated people—particularly university graduates—fleeing to the West. This “brain drain” became so acute that it was one of the main contributors to the construction of the Berlin Wall, and the East German border was heavily policed.

East Germany remained cut off from the West for nearly 30 years before popular resistance forced the communist government to allow an election. The first truly free elections in East Germany since 1932 took place in 1990, in which the pro-reunification Christian Democratic Union led a victorious coalition. The country officially dissolved itself and joined the Federal Republic of Germany shortly after, bringing East Germany to an end.

6 Yugoslavia


Though the concept of a united southern Slavic nation had existed since at least the 1600s, it was little more than a dream by the time it was suddenly created in the aftermath of World War I. Prior to the war, the nations of Yugoslavia had belonged to two old, powerful empires: Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Following the Treaty of Versailles, both of these empires were broken up, and the southern Slavs (consisting of more than 20 ethnic groups) were pushed together in a single state.[5]

From the offset, the so-called “Versailles State” strained under the weight of nationalist tensions. Following political disorder, King Alexander seized power from the government in 1928 and pushed through a series of reforms aimed at uniting the country, including splitting the country into new provinces not based on historical borders and banning the use of non-Yugoslavian flags. The measures were widely unpopular, and Alexander was assassinated in 1934.

Yugoslavia had failed to find strong allies in the run-up to World War II and was invaded by Germany. The Germans split the country up, and the royals went into exile. By the time the country emerged from the occupation, nearly two million people had been killed in the unrest. The Nazis were eventually driven out by the communist-led Partisans, who aligned themselves with Moscow.

The country was thereafter dominated by Tito and his Partisans, who took the reins of power. In 1948, Yugoslavia officially broke its connections with Moscow. It became a core founder of the Non-Aligned Movement, which sought to oppose both the communist East and US-led West. Tito granted the nations of Yugoslavia many freedoms, including their own supreme courts, parliaments, and leaders, in an effort to prevent nationalist tensions.

Tito held the country together through reputation and will, and with his death, the country began to unravel. A number of issues, including the potential for Serbian dominance, the ethnic makeup of Kosovo, and the status of minority ethnics living in different states, led to irreconcilable differences between Yugoslavia’s devolved governments. These came to a head shortly after the fall of the Soviet Union, when the dominant communist party broke up. With the sudden lack of a federal government, these burning issues boiled over into outright conflict, leading to the brutal Yugoslav Wars.

5 The Ottoman Empire


The Ottoman Empire was one of the longest-lived empires in human history.[6] First formed by seminomadic Turks in the 1300s, it dominated the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeastern Europe throughout the 1600s and 1700s. Its armies even reached the gates of Vienna in Austria. By the dawn of the 20th century, however, it was overextended, outdated, and struggling to control its hundreds of ethnic groups in an age of rising individual education and national identity.

The empire had been struggling to keep up with the other great powers of the globe since the 1800s but had been able to rely on its powerful alliances to maintain its position. In particular, the empire was able to defeat Russia in the Crimean War during the 1850s because of support from France and Britain. By 1900, however, the country was diplomatically isolated and very vulnerable. It looked toward the new state of Germany, very powerful but similarly isolated, as a way of forming a new bloc that could resist the Triple Entente. This bloc became known as the Central Powers.

Unfortunately, these two major factions found themselves at war in 1914, and by 1918, the Ottomans knew they were on the losing side. The empire was also struggling with rebellions and resistance in Arabia and had resorted to ethnically cleansing its Armenian and Greek regions to suppress resistance. Just as recently as 1909, the country had gone through a significant democratic reform that looked as though it would rejuvenate the state. By 1918, it was all but finished. The Allies officially partitioned the empire following World War I, leaving the empire with a much-reduced territory centered around modern-day Turkey. The death blow came from within Turkey itself, as the Young Turk movement pushed the sultanate out and declared Turkey a secular republic.

4 The USSR


In 1917, frustrated with the state of Russia and the slow pace of reform, a band of rebels set out to reshape the country. These were the Bolsheviks. Following an internal power struggle, they had taken control of Russia. Their influence extended to the surrounding states by 1922, and the Soviet Union was born.[7] Founded as a communist state, the new government’s goal was to implement true equality for every man or woman, regardless of birth.

This dream began to founder shortly after its beginning with the death of its first leader, Vladimir Lenin, in 1924. Josef Stalin inherited the state. He was a man who many, Lenin included, considered to be dangerous both to communism and the USSR. Over the next three decades, fantastic achievements in industrialization, technology, and national identity were overshadowed by political crackdowns, extreme authoritarian control, and economic and organizational problems that ultimately led to a famine which killed millions of people. Stalin’s extreme interpretation of Marxism led to the birth of a state which could rightfully be considered one of the most influential, and controversial, in human history.

The era following Stalin’s rule was arguably the USSR’s most successful, a time when its technological achievements (particularly in the Space Race) reached their heights and when the country was shaking off its previous political restrictions and becoming more open to the world. Quality of life improved and led to something of a golden age which is viewed with nostalgia by some Russians today. This wasn’t to last, however, and the Union entered a period of stagnation in the years after Khrushchev’s departure in 1964. Facilitated by a growing desire for liberty among its people and accelerated by the USSR’s failure to keep up with the West economically, increasingly widespread political and economic crises led to the decision to partially liberalize the state. By 1991, however, the situation was no better, and one by one, all of its members declared independence.

3 Prussia

Prussia had its roots in the religious state established by the Teutonic Order in 1308.[8] Following their conquest of the pagans who inhabited Prussia, this new German state attracted many Polish and German immigrants—so many, in fact, that they had all but displaced the original Old Prussians within a few decades. The Teutonic Order ultimately collapsed, and Prussia was absorbed by Poland around 1410.

The region remained dominated by German settlers, however, and it was eventually inherited by the leader of Brandenburg, Frederick I. While he was still technically a Polish vassal in Prussia and a German vassal in Brandenburg, Frederick began building his own state out of his possessions, including his own bureaucracy. Crucially, he established a powerful and very disciplined army, which Prussia later became famous for. Following the Thirty Years’ War, Prussia and Brandenburg became an independent state in 1657. From then on, it was one of the great powers of Europe, if not the world, victorious in wars throughout the 1700s and going on to decide the results of the Napoleonic Wars, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War, each of which shaped the borders and history of continental Europe. Prussia reached the height of its power in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War. It used its influence to form first the North German Confederation and then the German Empire in 1871. It was the largest state in the new country, covering around half of Germany’s total area.

Prussia was always heavily conservative, but it became a bastion of democracy and left-wing thinking after Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated in 1918. Fears that the Prussian state could be used to launch a communist uprising led Chancellor Von Papen, under the influence of Hitler, to launch a coup, expelling the Prussian government and seizing it for the Reich. Hitler’s eventual rise to power six months later was made much easier by his possession of Prussian resources. Following World War II, Prussia was abolished for good in 1947 as one of the Allies’ war demands.

2 The Kingdom Of The Two Sicilies


The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies existed in various forms from the Early Middle Ages to 1860, sometimes as one kingdom, sometimes as two—Sicily and Naples.[9] For most of its history, it was tied to the royal families of Spain and Aragon, who often gave the kingdom to their heirs or close relatives. The two kingdoms of Sicily and Naples were officially united in 1816 as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies under Ferdinand I, after a brief time as the Parthenopaean Republic under Napoleon.

For the majority of its existence, the Two Sicilies was a heavily agricultural country in which the Church had an enormous amount of influence—owning up to half of the country’s total land. The country did have a burgeoning industrial sector, however, particularly in the areas of arms manufacturing and processed foods. When the Italian Unification came, it hit Two Sicilies hard: The combination of northern migration and neglect by the new government led to the widespread collapse of industrial development.

The absolute monarch style of the Bourbon dynasty was never popular, and there were three popular uprisings against the monarchs between 1800 and 1848, when Sicily became independent for over a year. The advanced constitution it adopted, with dramatic liberal reforms and a plan for a united Italy, was a hint of what was to come in 1860, when Garibaldi and his volunteers invaded from Sardinia and conquered the kingdom, with help from Britain. Two Sicilies was absorbed by the new Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Despite its relatively short history, it was the home of many firsts, including the first railway in Italy, the first volcano observatory in the world, and the first suspension bridge in continental Europe.

1 The United States Of The Ionian Islands


The United States of the Ionian Islands was a tiny country compared with the others on this list, but it was important in the history of Greece because it was, when it was created in 1815, the first time any Greeks had governed themselves in 400 years.[10]

The independence of the Ionian Isles stretched back to 1800, when the semi-independent Septinsular Republic was created under the governance of Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The islands were seized by the French in 1807 and then made a protectorate of Britain in 1815 at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars. While the islands were technically a satellite of the United Kingdom, they were self-governing and had their own senate. The senate was made up of elected representatives from each of the seven islands of the republic. With support from the British government, the islands’ infrastructure developed quickly, with new road links being built alongside new power plants, a palace, an aqueduct, and a university—most of which were dismantled or fell into disrepair when the islands merged with Greece.

Despite an anti-British riot which gripped the country during the year of European unrest in 1848, relations between the Ionian Isles and Britain were largely positive. With the crowning of a new Greek king in 1864, the British were keen to bolster his reign and ceded the islands to him, bringing the republic’s history to an end.

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10 Nearly Forgotten European Kingdoms From History https://listorati.com/10-nearly-forgotten-european-kingdoms-from-history/ https://listorati.com/10-nearly-forgotten-european-kingdoms-from-history/#respond Tue, 15 Aug 2023 17:47:37 +0000 https://listorati.com/10-nearly-forgotten-european-kingdoms-from-history/

While Europe today has 12 monarchies out of a total of 44 countries, the European continent has seen dozens, if not hundreds of kingdoms come and go over the centuries. And if some lasted close to 1,000 years others couldn’t even make it an entire decade. Here are 10 such European kingdoms that most people have all but forgotten.  

10. The Odrysian Kingdom (c. 480 BC – 30 BC)

In the aftermath of their failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the mighty Persian Empire under Xerxes I was forced out of Europe. Taking advantage of the power vacuum left behind, the Thracians under King Teres I would go on to found the Odrysian Kingdom. Together with his son, Sitalces, Teres I created the largest independent political entity in the Eastern Balkans up until that point. At its greatest extent, the Odrysian Kingdom encompassed present-day Bulgaria, parts of northern Greece, most of European Turkey, and southeastern Romania. 

In their early history, the Odrysians were able to stop the Scythian advance south of the Danube River. They were also allies of Athens, taking part in the Peloponnesian War on their side. Although probably exaggerated, the Odrysian Kingdom mustered an impressive force of around 150,000 men to attack and easily conquer Macedonia, which was a Spartan ally at the time. Their golden age would come to an end with the assassination of King Kotys in 359 BC. The plot was masterminded by none other than their long-time allies, the Athenians, who rightfully feared the Thracians would soon conquer the Greek colony cities dotting the southern Thracian coast.  

Over the following years and centuries, the Odrysian Kingdom would split into three smaller kingdoms, be conquered by the Macedonians under Philip II, and reemerge as a smaller Odrysian state under King Seuthes III. They would later become vassalized and eventually absorbed by the Romans during the second half of the 1st century BC.

9. The Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus (5th century BC – c. 527 AD)

The present-day Strait of Kerch between the Black and Azov Seas was known in Antiquity as the Cimmerian Bosporus. The kingdom that existed in this area for nearly 1,000 years would also bear the name. It was centered around several Greek colonies established on both sides of the strait during the 6th and 7th centuries BC. Located on the outskirts of the present-day city of Kerch, Panticapaeum was the largest and would become the kingdom’s capital.  

Likely pressured by the Scythian unification and expansion in the area, these Greek colonies came together under the Archaeanactidae dynasty, which ruled until 438 BC. They were usurped by a mercenary of probable Thracian origin named Spartocus (not Spartacus – also a Thracian) who would go on to found the Spartocid dynasty that lasted until 110 BC. Under this new dynasty, the Kingdom of Bosporus would see a rapid economic expansion, quickly becoming the main trade center on the Black Sea. 

During the 1st century BC, the Cimmerian Bosporus Kingdom came under the control of Mithradates the Great, King of Pontus, and was ruled over by his son King Machares. After his defeat against the Romans under Pompey in 66 BC, Mithradates retreated to Bosporus to raise another army but Machares refused to help and Mithradates likely had him killed. In 63 BC, his other son, Pharnaces II led a successful rebellion against his father who ended up committing suicide at Panticapaeum. 

Aside from several brief interruptions, the Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus remained a client state under Roman protection from that point onwards. In fact, it was the longest-lived Roman vassal kingdom without ever being annexed. Its downfall, however, came after the fall of Rome. During a somewhat long period of instability, the kingdom fell under the hands of both the Goths and the Huns and was eventually taken over by the Byzantine Empire, which instituted complete imperial control.

8. The Dacian Kingdom (c. 80-44 BC and c. 87-106 AD)

The Dacians were a group living north of the Lower Danube River and around the Carpathian Mountains in present-day Romania. For much of their existence, they lived as culturally-similar independent tribes but came together on two occasions to form the Dacian Kingdom. The first time was under King Burebistas around the year 80 BC. This growing threat also drew the attention of Rome, particularly Julius Caesar who was also eyeing the rich gold and silver mines in Dacian territory. In the end, Caesar went into Gaul and was later assassinated in 44 BC. That was the same year King Burebistas was killed and the Dacian Kingdom disintegrated into smaller factions. 

It would reemerge under King Decebalus around 87 AD who would conduct several raids into the Roman province of Moesia. This again drew the attention of the Romans who would send five legions into Dacia but were soundly defeated. Emperor Domitian was forced to agree to an unfavorable truce, giving the Dacians a yearly payment of gold and technical support. Eager to right his predecessor’s wrong and prove himself a capable general, Roman Emperor Trajan initiated two successive wars against Dacia, in 101-102 AD and again in 105-106 AD, finally defeating the threat and annexing much of the kingdom into the Empire. 

Both historical and archeological evidence point to the Romans making significant changes to their armor, particularly for these military campaigns against the Dacian Kingdom. They introduced the manica (segmented metal armguards) for the first time, reverted to and improved upon two types of body armor (the lorica hamata and lorica squamata), and reinforced their helmets. Historians believe these changes were made in response to the Dacian falx. This was a devastatingly powerful, inward-pointed sword, somewhat similar to a sickle, capable of striking soldiers around or above shields or slicing their arms clean off.

7. Kingdom of Dumnonia (late 4th century AD – 9th century AD)

Located on the British South West Peninsula, the Kingdom of Dumnonia got its start during the Sub-Roman Britain period between the end of Roman rule in Britain and the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons. The kingdom’s name comes from the Dumnonii; a tribe that can draw its origins in the area at least as early as the Bronze Age (3300 BC to 1200 BC). They likely predated the Celts on the island and were known to rarely intermarry with other tribes. 

Given their resilience in the face of the Roman invasion, the Dumnonii enjoyed a certain type of de facto independence, being more of a Roman vassal than an occupied people like most others. It’s no surprise that immediately after the Roman departure, they began forging their fully independent kingdom. 

At its largest, the kingdom centered around present-day Devon County (a name derived from Dumnonia), but also included Cornwall to the west and parts of Somerset to the east. The initial capital was at Isca Dumnoniorum (present-day Exeter) but later moved to Tintagel in Cornwall. Incidentally, this is also where the legendary King Arthur was said to have been born. 

The demise of the Dumnonian Kingdom was a slow one. One after the other, their settlements fell to the Saxons, particularly those of West Seaxe (Wessex). By the 750s, they are completely pushed out of Somerset and Devon. Their remaining territories in Cornwall began being known as the Kingdom of Corniu. The last of the Dumnonian kings was Dunyarth who drowned in 875, effectively putting an end to the kingdom.

6. The Visigothic Kingdom  (418 AD – c. 721 AD)

The Visigoths were a Romanized Germanic people of diverse backgrounds who would go on to found one of the most important, yet nearly forgotten Western European kingdoms in the early Middle Ages. Under the leadership of Alaric I, they would sack Rome in 410 AD. Over the next several decades, the Visigoths with their new capital at Toulouse would expand their territories into Gaul against the Romans, fight with the Romans against the invading Huns, and conquer large parts of Hispania.

In 466, King Euric ascended to the throne by assassinating his elder brother King Theodoric II, who himself murdered his elder brother Thorismund. By the year 500, they controlled much of present-day southern and southwestern France and most of the Iberian Peninsula. With the arrival of the Franks, they would lose the majority of Gaul by 508 AD, including their capital, save a narrow strip of coast known as Septimania. 

Up until that point, the kingdom was sometimes referred to as Regnum Tolosae (Kingdom of Toulouse). For the next two centuries, it would be mostly known as the Kingdom of Toledo, having taken complete control of Hispania. The Visigoths are accredited for building the only new cities in Western Europe throughout this period.

Their downfall began in 711 with the Moorish conquest of the region. In only five years, most of the Iberian Peninsula was under Islamic control, and in 721 they lost Septimania too. The only remnants left were in the mountainous regions of Northern Spain. Here, a certain Visigoth refugee by the name of Pelayo founded the Kingdom of Asturias, led a fierce resistance against the Moors, and spearheaded the infamous centuries-long Reconquista (Reconquering) of the peninsula.

5. Kingdom of Powys (5th century AD – 1160 AD)

When the Romans began retreating from Britain in around 383 AD, several kingdoms in Wales, such as Gwynedd, Dyfed, Powys, and Gwent, among a few others emerged as independent successor states. The Kingdom of Powys was located in what is now present-day east-central Wales, bordering England. Its name, Powys, is believed to derive from the Latin pagenses, which means “dwellers in the countryside.” Another possible source could be referencing paganism.

During the early Middle Ages, Powys played an important role in keeping the Anglo-Saxons out of Wales. Although they suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Chester in 616 fighting the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, they would defeat the English in several battles during the 7th and early 8th centuries. These successes even pushed the Merican King Æthelbald to build Wat’s Dyke; a 40-mile-long earthwork separating the Britons in Powys from the Anglo-Saxons in Mercia. The same thing happened under King Offa of Mercia who built the 169-mile-long Offa’s Dyke, running roughly parallel to the first. 

During the Norse invasions of the 9th century, King Merfyn Frych of Gwynedd married Princess Nest of Powys, joining their forces and preventing the Vikings from taking Wales. Their son, Rhodri ap Merfyn became king of both, defeating the Danes in a battle in 856 and earning the title of “Mawr” or “The Great.” Powys’ eventual downfall came with the Normans, who, by the late 11th century, already established a firm foothold in their lands. 

4. The Kingdom of the Isles (mid-9th century AD – 1265 AD)

The Kingdom of Mann and the Isles, simply known as the Kingdom of the Isles, was a successor state of the Gaelic Kingdom of Dalriada. Its exact extent has never been clear but it centered around the island archipelago off the western coast of Scotland, known as the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. Throughout its roughly four-century existence, the kingdom was either fully independent or under the influence of other kingdoms in Norway, Ireland, Scotland, England, or the Orkney Islands.

Even its beginnings are shrouded in mystery. If the region had relatively good record-keeping between the 5th and early 9th centuries, the Norse incursions in the area effectively put a stop to it for nearly three centuries. What is certain, however, is that its early history was largely dominated by the Uí Ímair dynasty (the descendants of Ivar the Boneless). 

The most noteworthy ruler of the Kingdom of the Isles was the Viking warrior Godfrey “the White Hand” Crovan, a survivor of the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066. After their defeat in battle, Godfrey took the Isle of Man with an army from the Hebrides archipelago, becoming King of the Isles in 1079. His descendants would rule the kingdom for the next 200 years until it was absorbed by Scotland in 1265. Today, the title of Lord of the Isles is held by Prince William, who inherited it from his father King Charles III upon his ascension to the British throne on September 8, 2022.

3. The Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1526 – 1570)

With the death of King Louis II of Hungary after the defeat of the Hungarian Kingdom against the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Hungary was left without an apparent heir. Ferdinand of Austria and the future Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire claimed the throne of Hungary on account of his marriage to Louis’ sister. However, many Hungarian noblemen supported the popular voivode (governor) of Transylvania, John Zápolya, and elected him king on November 10, 1526. Ferdinand sent an army and drove John out but the latter called upon the help of the Ottomans under Suleiman the Magnificent.

With the Turks’ backing, John Zápolya controlled Transylvania and the eastern half of the Hungarian plain, while Ferdinand controlled the western half. This became known as the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom, which was an Ottoman vassal. In 1538, the two sides signed a treaty formalizing the division, but making Ferdinand heir since John was childless. Nevertheless, John remarried and had a son in 1540, nine days before he died. The infant John II Sigismund Zápolya was quickly crowned king and Ferdinand sent another army to enforce his claim. The Ottomans intervened, driving out Ferdinand and taking much of central Hungary in the process. 

The next several decades would see a period of strife with John II having to abdicate for several years and flee to Poland. He was reinstated as king in 1556 and in 1570 he would sign a new treaty with Ferdinand’s successor, Maximilian. John II Sigismund was made the Prince of Transylvania under Maximilian and a reunited Hungary.

2. The Kingdom of Etruria (1801–1807)

Being one of the shortest-lived kingdoms in European history, the Kingdom of Etruria was the first time Emperor Napoleon tried his hand at nation-building. Located in central Italy around Tuscany, the Kingdom of Etruria was created as a means of repaying the Bourbons in Spain in return for France annexing the northern-Italian Dutchy of Parma. The Bourbons also agreed to retrocede Louisiana back to France in exchange for six warships and secure the Kingdom of Etruria as a vassal to Spain. 

Forced out of his ancestral home, the former Grand Duke of Tuscany Ferdinand III, was not pleased. When the new rulers (King Louis I and Queen Maria Luisa of Etruria) moved into Pitti Palace in Florence, they discovered that the Grand Duke had taken everything with him. Strapped for cash, the new royals had to borrow furniture and even kitchen utensils from the local noblemen. 

King Louis died quickly and suddenly after an epileptic fit in 1803 at the age of 30. His infant son Charles Louis become king and his mother Maria Luisa became queen regent. She managed to make some rather significant reforms in Etruria, given both her young age of 20 and the short time she had at her disposal. Nevertheless, Napoleon put an end to the kingdom in 1807 and annexed it to France.

1. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1734 or 1816 – 1860)

The name of this particular kingdom can be somewhat confusing given the fact that there are not two Sicilies. To add further confusion to the issue, some consider the start of this kingdom in 1816, while others in 1734. To put it simply, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies draws its roots in the Kingdom of Sicily (singular). This initial kingdom was founded by the Normans in the 12th century, had its capital at Palermo, and was comprised of the island of Sicily and the southern Italian Peninsula bordering the Papal States to the north.

In 1282, an uprising broke the kingdom apart in which the King of Sicily maintained control of the mainland while losing the island. The kingdom moved its capital to Naples (sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Naples) but still kept the official title of Kingdom of Sicily. The island, on the other hand, was taken over by the Spanish Crown of Aragon, which also kept the name. In 1734, the two kingdoms were taken over by, the Duke of Parma and the future King of Spain, Charles III. In 1816, the two kingdoms were officially merged into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

The next few decades saw a period of significant strife and political clashes. This socio-political instability coupled with a poor economy made it relatively easy for Italian revolutionary, Giuseppe Garibaldi, to invade in May 1860, conquer the Two Sicilies within the year, and help establish the Kingdom of Italy.

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