The late medieval period was a chaotic time in history. England and France were engaged in the Hundred Years’ War, and Italian city‑states were fighting one another for supremacy in the peninsula. In the absence of permanent standing armies, combatants relied on mercenary companies to do the fighting for them. The temporary peace brought about by the Treaty of Bretigny in 1360 unleashed thousands of unemployed men‑at‑arms looking to pillage to sustain themselves. Many coalesced around charismatic and intrepid leaders into what became known as “free companies.” In Italy, they were known as condottieri. This word is derived from condotta, meaning “contract,” the instrument by which they put themselves in the service of the highest bidder. These soldiers of fortune were the late medieval version of Mafia bosses, making their living with murder, extortion, and terror.

Why These 10 Swashbuckling Mercenaries Matter

Each of the ten figures below earned a reputation for ruthless efficiency, flamboyant bravado, and a willingness to switch sides for the right price. Their stories illuminate the chaotic world of medieval warfare and the shadowy economy of hired swords.

10 Roger de Flor

Roger de Flor was born in the then‑Catalonian province of Brindisi, Italy in 1267. As a boy he went out to sea and eventually became a Knight Templar. He took advantage of the Muslim capture of Acre in 1291 by robbing the refugees, and when his activities were exposed, he was expelled from the Templars. Fleeing to Genoa, he became commander of a force of Spanish mercenaries called Almogavares. Their name was derived from the Arab al‑mogauar, meaning “one who devastates,” and they were the descendants of the Iberians who accompanied Hannibal into Italy. In the seventh and eighth centuries they engaged in guerrilla operations against the Muslim invaders of Spain.

In 1303 the Byzantines recruited Roger, who was then in the service of the king of Aragon, to help fight the Ottoman Turks who had just wrested Bithynia from the Empire. In Constantinople Roger married a niece of Emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus and was made a grand duke. With 1,500 knights and 4,000 Almogavares called the Catalan Company, Roger won battles against the Turks, but he also pillaged and looted the Byzantine inhabitants of Anatolia in what is now Turkey. This led the authorities to denounce him as nothing better than a brigand, but success swelled his ego and he began dreaming of carving his own dominion in Anatolia.

Emperor Michael IX became convinced that Roger and his undisciplined Almogavares must be destroyed. In 1305 Roger was lured to Adrianople for a banquet hosted by Michael. There he was ambushed by another mercenary force and killed, along with 130 of his men. The remnants of the Catalan Company ravaged the countryside in revenge before settling in Greece and founding the Duchy of Athens in 1311.

9 Bascot de Mauleon

Bascot de Mauleon was captain of a group that marched into Burgundy with freebooters of various nationalities. Mauleon had his first experience of battle at Poitiers. Later he went to Prussia with the Count of Foix, crushing the peasant rebellion of the Jacquerie upon his return to France.

Mauleon estimated that about 12,000 men rode with him in the Loire region. This formidable force seized the castle of Brignais from the king and defeated the constable of France, amassing such wealth in ransoms and booty that the pope in Avignon feared for his safety.

Technically Mauleon fought for the king of England, but as an independent freebooter his main interest was money. Before he made it to the big time, Mauleon remembered, “Sometimes I have been so thoroughly down that I hadn’t even a horse to ride, and at other times fairly rich, as luck came and went.” His rags‑to‑riches tale was recorded by the French chronicler Froissart, who met him at a hostel in the Pyrenees. Froissart recalled, “He arrived with plenty of followers and baggage… He had as many pack horses with him as any great baron, and he and his people took their meals off silver plate.” Not a bad lifestyle for a highwayman.

8 Duke Werner von Urslingen

Taking upon himself the title of “Duke,” Werner von Urslingen stitched onto his doublet the motto “the enemy of pity, of mercy, and of God,” and lived up to it in the most horrific ways possible. Werner’s modus operandi was invading peaceful regions and robbing, raping, and killing the inhabitants before torching their property. He trumpeted his atrocities to authorities and threatened more unless he was paid, extorting vast sums from Siena, Perugia, Florence, and Bologna. In 1339 Werner and his band were denounced as “a plague of society.”

Werner founded the Great Company in 1342. At its height it numbered 6,000 men, mainly armored cavalry. He imposed strict discipline and a code of laws upon his men, including equal division of income. Later mercenary armies sought to model themselves after the powerful Great Company.

In 1347 Werner supported Queen Joanna I of Naples, sister‑in‑law of King Louis I of Hungary, after Louis invaded Naples to avenge his brother’s murder. Werner helped Joanna return to Naples and defended her against the opposing condottiere. On Joanna’s behalf Werner attacked the baronage of Meleto, raking in half a million florins’ worth of booty. Eventually both Werner and Wolfart were bought off, and Werner returned to Germany with his loot.

7 Conrad Of Landau

The German Conrad of Landau took command of the Great Company in 1354, operating in Tuscany, Umbria, the Romagna, and Lombardy. He held entire cities for ransom and reaped massive profits. As Conrad bluntly told a papal legate before invading church lands, “It is our custom to rob, sack, and pillage whoever resists. Our income is derived from the funds of the provinces we invade; he who values his life pays for peace and quiet from us at a steep price.”

On one occasion Conrad was ambushed by the Florentines on his way to Siena to fight Perugia. He was unhorsed and wounded, his force routed, and angry locals looted the remnants of the Company. It was a temporary setback, but Conrad continued to rake in vast revenues, enabling his father in Germany to buy back the family castle and lands lost to debt.

The Great Company was eventually hired by the Visconti rulers of Milan to drive away the rival White Company of Albert Sterz. In 1363 the two companies met at Canturino. Conrad held his line until his Hungarian contingents refused to fight fellow Hungarians in the opposing army. Their desertion tipped the scales to the White Company, and Conrad was killed in the ensuing battle.

6 Albert Sterz

The most infamous brigand group of all is the White Company, founded by the German Albert Sterz. It got its name from the white surcoats worn by its troops and the white banners they flew. Under Sterz, the Company was unmatched in efficiency. Its 3,500 horsemen and 2,000 infantry were impeccably organized and well equipped. Engineers even laid mines and built scaling ladders and siege towers within its ranks.

In 1360 Sterz moved the Company to Italy, the fertile field of constantly warring city‑states. Along the way he recruited an English knight named John Hawkwood, who swiftly rose through the ranks because of his negotiating skill. Sterz soon regretted his decision. Hawkwood’s men impressed him, deposed Sterz and gave command to the Englishman. The jealous Sterz sulked, biding his time for payback.

The Company drew up a contract with Pisa to attack rival Florence. The city was prepared, and Hawkwood’s attack stalled. Sterz seized his moment, switched sides, and carried his loyal men over to the Florentines. The White Company disintegrated, leaving Hawkwood with only 800 men. After the war Sterz merged the remnants with the German condottiere Hannekin Baumgarten, forming the Company of the Star, which enabled Sterz to crush Hawkwood.

5 Alberico de Barbiano

Alberico de Barbiano, a native of Cotignola in Romagna, began his career as a captain in the service of Milan. Later he was employed by Florence, Venice, Naples, and the papacy. Alberico’s most infamous moment came in 1377, when he participated in the horrific Massacre of Cesena, a town not far from his home, as captain of the forces under Cardinal Robert of Geneva (later anti‑pope Clement VII). Ordered by Pope Gregory XI to subdue the rebellious towns of Romagna, Cardinal Robert employed Breton mercenaries, “the most cruel and bestial seed of France.” Even after the townspeople surrendered their weapons, the inhabitants of Cesena were slaughtered in a three‑day bloodbath, their corpses left to be devoured by dogs.

In 1378 Alberico formed the Company of St. George, composed entirely of Italians who swore “hatred and eternal enmity” toward all foreigners. He turned against Clement VII and defeated his Breton force on behalf of Pope Urban VI, who proclaimed Italy “free of barbarians.” Yet the anti‑foreigner sentiment was empty bombast. After expelling the Bretons, Alberico began plundering Tuscan towns. His new band, the Company of the Hook, included Germans, Hungarians, and perhaps inevitably, Bretons.

At the close of the 14th century Alberico fought in wars between Florence and Milan, switching sides as it pleased him. He served Naples in the twilight of his career and died in 1409. Alberico is credited with military innovations such as improved armor and aggressive cavalry charges. His practice of recruiting troops from his own Romagnan feudatories, creating greater cohesion, is seen by some as a precursor to the eventual unification of Italy in the 19th century.

4 Muzio And Francesco Sforza

Muzio Attendolo was the first prominent member of the family that would later rule Milan. He hailed from Cotignola in Romagna and served under Alberico de Barbiano before striking out on his own. Alberico dubbed him Sforza, meaning “force,” and as an independent condottiere he made it his nom de guerre.

In 1398 Muzio entered the service of the Visconti rulers of Milan but soon departed to fight for Florence and then Ferrara. By 1412 Naples secured his services, and Muzio became constable of the kingdom. He endured a roller‑coaster career during the chaotic reign of Queen Joanna II, alternating between rewards of lands and offices and periods of imprisonment and torture. In 1424 Muzio drowned in a river while campaigning against a fellow condottiere.

Like a medieval Michael Corleone, Muzio’s son Francesco took up his father’s mantle and became the most successful mercenary captain of the 15th century. Francesco served the Visconti against Venice, then Venice against the Visconti, attacked the pope, then defended him. To bind Francesco permanently to Milan, Duke Filippo Visconti married him to his only daughter in 1441. Expecting to inherit the dukedom, Francesco was thwarted when Milan declared a republic. He besieged Milan and seized the title by force in 1450 – the Sforza name was earned.

3 Rodrigo de Villandrando

Many mercenaries were not averse to robbing their own employers. This was the case with Rodrigo de Villandrando, one of the greatest mercenaries of his era. Rodrigo was born in Castile in 1380. Seeking a military career he traveled to France and first joined the mercenary army of Amaury de Severac and the Burgundians.

Rodrigo formed his own mercenary company in 1420 and offered his services to the French Dauphin Charles. He extorted money from the cities and estates of Languedoc and pillaged the countryside, all within Charles’ realm. When Charles ordered him to attack the English, Rodrigo refused and instead went to Toulouse, recruiting more men. He eventually attacked English‑held Bordeaux and was pardoned by Charles. In a later battle at Anthon his 400 men defeated the Burgundians; one enemy soldier hid in a hollow tree, only to be crushed by his own armor. The tree was cut down in 1672, revealing his skeleton.

At his peak Rodrigo commanded 10,000 men, exacting ransoms from nobles and demanding “protection money” from locals who wished to avoid murder and pillage. His violent forays in Gascony earned him the title “Emperor of Pillagers.” Enriched, he retired in the 1440s, returned to Castile, willed his wealth to a monastery, and died in 1457.

2 Arnaud de Cervole

Born into a minor noble Gascon family, Arnaud de Cervole was the archpriest of Vélines in the diocese of Périgueux. Being a man of God didn’t stop him from mixing with brigands and men of base extraction. Deprived of his benefice by the bishop of Bordeaux, he turned to full‑time brigandage, specializing in stealing castles. At one point Arnaud and his band seized three castles in Angoulême as security until their employer paid their wages. The French crown charged him with theft when he took over a castle in Normandy, though he was then in the service of King Jean II.

After Jean II’s capture at Poitiers, Arnaud lost his patron and turned to pillaging, establishing a protection racket in the wealthy, peaceful region of Provence. He approached Avignon, terrifying the pope into a shakedown. Froissart records, “He entered Avignon with most of his followers by friendly agreement, and was received with as much respect as if he had been the king of France’s son, and dined several times with the pope and the cardinals. All his sins were remitted and when he left he was given 40,000 crowns (20,000 gold florins) to distribute among his companions.”

Shifting operations to Burgundy, Arnaud seized castle after castle until the count bought him off for 2,500 gold francs. In 1365 Pope Urban V recruited Arnaud to lead a crusade against the Turks, but the true aim was to move the freebooters away from the Rhône. Arnaud’s army reached Lyon but refused to march on. Unfed and unpaid, his men quarreled with him, which ended in his murder.

1 Sir John Hawkwood

Despite leading the murderous White Company, Sir John Hawkwood died a fairly rich man and was even honored by an equestrian fresco in the Florence Cathedral. The memorial was a personal affront to Victorian author Ferdinand Gregorovius, who lamented, “Florence, who denied Dante a resting place, erected a noble monument to a robber.”

Born to a minor Essex landowner, Hawkwood left for France to fight for Edward III at age 18. He was knighted for his role in the English victory at Poitiers, but after the Treaty of Bretigny he was left a poor knight without a job. He joined the Free Companies to support himself.

As a soldier of the king Hawkwood was an unknown, but as a freelancer he achieved astounding success. Seeking his fortune in the medieval snake pit of Italy, he became leader of the White Company, which terrorized Italy and earned a reputation as “perfidious and most wicked.” The only consolation was that “they did not mutilate or roast their victims like the Hungarians.” The locals called Hawkwood’s force “devils in human shape.”

Over the next thirty years Hawkwood’s business of murder, pillage, and blackmail prospered. His fighting skill was coveted by the pope, Florence, Milan, Pisa, and Perugia. Because his loyalty was only to money, he betrayed each client when a juicier offer appeared. Florins flowed so freely into his coffers that he rivaled banks and trading houses. The White Company employed lawyers and notaries to keep records of bribes and ransoms, accountants and secretaries to divide the plunder, and brokers to sell each soldier’s share.

Hawkwood became so influential that he arranged the marriage of Edward’s third son, Lionel, to the daughter of the Duke of Milan. He himself married the duke’s 17‑year‑old daughter when he was 57. Florence offered the richest rewards, and he ended his days as a general of the Florentines, instrumental in creating their republic. When he died in 1394, he was remembered as “the ablest military commander of the Middle Ages.”

When you set sail across the Atlantic, you quickly discover the top 10 differences between Europe and America – from how governments run to the way we plug in our appliances. Though the two continents share a deep history, their everyday rhythms diverge in surprising ways. Let’s dive into the ten most striking contrasts that shape life on each side of the pond.

10. Government

Our governing systems could not be more dissimilar if anyone tried on purpose – and, as history shows, the United States deliberately set out a different path. Frustrated by the European monarchies’ treatment of dissenters, early American settlers drafted a brand‑new charter that still echoes today.

Europe: The European Parliament (Europarl or EP) is the directly elected parliamentary body of the European Union (EU). Together with the Council of the European Union, it forms a bicameral legislature that ranks among the world’s most powerful. The Parliament and Council together constitute the highest legislative authority within the Union, though their powers are limited to competencies delegated by member states. The body comprises 785 MEPs, representing the second‑largest democratic electorate globally after India and the largest trans‑national electorate (about 492 million).

America: The federal government of the United States carries out the roles assigned to the federation of individual states by the Constitution. It is divided into three branches – executive, legislative, and judicial – each checking the others through a system of separation of powers. While the Constitution caps federal authority, substantial power remains with the states. The federal hub sits in Washington, D.C., often simply called “Washington.”

In short, the EU’s supranational legislature contrasts sharply with the U.S.’s federal system of checks and balances.

9. Television

Americans binge‑watch a staggering array of cable and satellite channels, while Europeans also enjoy a rich mix of publicly funded networks – many of which, like the BBC, run without commercials. Since the early 2000s both continents have converged on similar broadband, satellite and cable offerings, yet cultural programming still diverges.

Europe’s home‑grown comedies and dramas, such as “Doctor Who” and the original “The Office,” often find their way across the pond, where U.S. studios adapt them for local tastes. Some of these adaptations, like the American “The Office” and “Three’s Company,” have eclipsed the originals in popularity.

Both continents now enjoy comparable streaming options, yet the origins of many beloved shows still trace back across the Atlantic.

8. Meal Times And Etiquette

Europeans tend to gather around a shared dinner table, whereas many Americans favor the convenience of eating in front of the television. Consequently, fast‑food chains dominate the U.S. landscape but are less prevalent in places like France and Italy, where family meals remain the norm.

In mainland Europe, shoppers often visit daily markets for fresh produce, while U.S. consumers rely on larger supermarkets and big‑box stores. The United Kingdom is an exception, with grocery delivery becoming commonplace, mirroring some American trends.

Trivia: In Europe, an “entrée” is the first course (equivalent to an American appetizer), and the main course is simply called the “main course.” Salads, a staple in U.S. dining, are rarely served as a separate course in Europe, usually appearing alongside the main dish.

7. Shops

American shopping often means strolling through sprawling malls or big‑box retailers like Walmart, Target, and Home Depot, where everything you need is under one roof. This convenience has contributed to the decline of many mom‑and‑pop shops.

Europeans, on the other hand, favor high‑street boutiques and open‑air markets that showcase a diverse array of local goods. While malls are gaining ground in some countries, the traditional “high street” still offers personalized service – though a bad experience can be harder to resolve.

6. Money

U.S. currency is straightforward: paper bills for one dollar and up (1, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100) and coins for amounts under a quarter (penny, nickel, dime, quarter). The greenbacks feature presidents and historic figures, with some speculating about hidden Masonic symbols.

Most European Union members share the euro, a single currency that simplifies travel and trade. The United Kingdom, however, retains its own pound. While the euro eases cross‑border transactions, its introduction sparked price hikes in certain nations, such as Italy.

5. Language

America operates primarily in a single tongue – American English – though Spanish is increasingly common. Europe, by contrast, boasts a mosaic of languages, often exceeding the number of nations.

Consequently, most Europeans learn at least one foreign language in school, frequently English. In many cities, English is widely spoken, and in places like the Netherlands, local English can rival native British accents. The multilingual environment, paired with the euro, makes European travel relatively hassle‑free.

4. Sports

In the United States, the weekend ritual often involves gathering with friends, clutching a cold beer, and cheering on teams in baseball, American football, basketball, hockey, or auto racing. Spectators proudly wear team apparel, and the fan experience is a cultural cornerstone.

Europeans gravitate toward football (soccer), cricket, rugby, and tennis. The passion for local clubs can be ferocious, with stadium crowds sometimes erupting into intense, even dangerous, displays of emotion. The fervor rivals – and occasionally exceeds – American sports enthusiasm.

3. Cooking

American cuisine is a melting pot, borrowing techniques and flavors from around the globe. From fried delights and mass‑produced comfort foods to grilled steaks, burgers, hot dogs, chips, and gravy‑laden dishes, the U.S. palate embraces variety and convenience.

European cooking reflects a deep cultural heritage, with each nation offering distinct specialties. While French cuisine leans heavily on butter and cream, portions tend to be smaller, and the overall diet isn’t necessarily healthier. England historically suffers a poor culinary reputation, though modern chefs are reimagining classics like steak‑and‑kidney pudding for today’s diners.

2. Drinking

Beer reigns supreme in the United States, with a booming craft‑brew scene that boasts thousands of micro‑breweries. Wine production thrives on the West Coast, especially in California, and even inland states like Michigan contribute. State laws prohibit alcohol sales before noon, restrict Sunday purchases after 5 p.m., and ban sales during holidays after 2 a.m.

In Europe, beer, wine, and spirits are equally popular, though legal drinking ages vary by country. Some nations differentiate between ages for beer/wine and stronger spirits, while others allow minors to sip wine with meals under adult supervision. European families often enjoy a modest glass of wine at dinner, reflecting a more relaxed cultural attitude toward alcohol compared with the U.S.’s stricter regulations.

1. Day To Day

Both Americans and most Europeans drive on the right‑hand side of the road, yet traffic rules differ. In the U.S., drivers may turn right on red after stopping, a practice not universally permitted in Europe. Britain adds a twist with a variety of pedestrian crossings: puffin, toucan, pegasus, tiger, zebra, and pelican, each serving cyclists, horse riders, or pedestrians in distinct ways.

Electrical plugs also diverge. Continental Europe typically uses two‑round‑pin sockets, while the United Kingdom employs three thick rectangular pins. Moreover, light switches operate opposite to one another across the Atlantic.

By modern standards, legal systems in medieval Europe were unfair and weak. The 10 bizarre legal cases we examine reveal how trials by ordeal, torture, and brutal punishments were once accepted as reliable ways to determine guilt or innocence.

1. The Leprosy Scare Trials

In medieval times, leprosy was believed to be extremely contagious. Fear of the disease led Europeans to isolate lepers, branding them both unclean and suspicious. The stigma turned lepers into easy targets for blame and persecution.

In the spring of 1321, a rumor spread across southern France that lepers were conspiring to poison wells and unleash a nationwide leprosy epidemic. Supposedly, once the population was infected, the lepers would overthrow the government and seize control of the kingdom. Brutal interrogations of the accused also implicated Jews and a Muslim ruler in the imagined plot.

Although the whole story was fabricated, King Philip V ordered every leper in the realm to be arrested and tried for treason. Hysterical mobs murdered countless lepers without consequence, while those who faced formal trials were tortured and burned at the stake. By the end of the year, thousands had perished. It was not until 1338 that the Avignon Pope publicly declared the lepers innocent.

Tristan Shaw keeps a blog called Bizarre and Grotesque, where he writes about folklore, paranormal phenomena, and unsolved crime.

2. Joan Of Arc

Nearly everyone knows Joan of Arc’s infamous 1431 trial and execution, but fewer are aware of her posthumous retrial more than two decades later. The original proceeding listed seventy accusations, later narrowed to twelve, and ended with her being burned as a heretic.

In 1450, the French king ordered an investigation into the fairness of Joan’s trial. The inquiry uncovered numerous procedural flaws, especially the heavy English influence in Rouen, which was under English control at the time, rendering the original trial deeply biased.

By 1455, Pope Calixtus III authorized a new trial. After eight months of deliberation, the court declared all twelve original charges fraudulent, effectively exonerating Joan of the heresy accusation and restoring her reputation.

3. Girolamo Savonarola

In late‑15th‑century Florence, Dominican preacher Girolamo Savonarola wielded extraordinary influence, openly challenging both the civic government and the Catholic hierarchy while claiming prophetic insight.

Excommunicated in 1497, Savonarola faced a dramatic “trial by fire” in 1498, proposed by rival Francesco da Puglia. The premise: if Savonarola could walk through flames unharmed, it would prove divine favor and invalidate the papal ban.

The spectacle collapsed when a sudden thunderstorm extinguished the flames. The debacle led to Savonarola’s arrest, forced confession of false prophecy under torture, and eventual execution by hanging alongside two supporters.

4. John Rykener

John Rykener, a 14th‑century Londoner, led a double life as a male playboy and a female‑clothed prostitute known as Eleanor. His secret was uncovered in December 1395 when city officials caught him in a street stall with a client.

The client, unaware of John’s biological sex, reported the encounter. John admitted to cross‑dressing and revealed an extensive list of male patrons, including aristocratic scholars, chaplains, friars, and even priests.

He also boasted of sleeping with nuns for free while presenting as a man. The historical record does not reveal John’s ultimate fate, though it is likely he faced a sodomy conviction.

5. Stadelin Of Boltigen

Stadelin, a Swiss farmer from Boltigen between 1392 and 1406, became the target of witchcraft accusations after a bountiful harvest sparked rumors that he used sorcery to steal crops from neighboring fields and manipulate the weather.

Villagers also claimed he caused a local woman to miscarry seven times. Under torture, Stadelin confessed to consorting with demons, who summoned thunderstorms whenever he tossed a black chicken into the air. He blamed a buried lizard for the woman’s infertility.

Stadelin further implicated his wife as a witch and advised authorities not to trust her denials. Both were burned at the stake for their confessions.

6. Count Gero Of Alsleben

Trial by combat, a relic of Germanic custom, sometimes settled disputes in medieval Europe, even pitting monasteries or spouses against each other. In 979, the Holy Roman Empire arranged a duel between Count Gero of Alsleben and a Saxon named Waldo.

The exact grievance remains unclear, but Waldo brought a charge that led to Gero’s arrest. During the fight, Gero slashed Waldo’s neck, yet Waldo struck Gero’s head, winning the duel.

In a bizarre twist, Waldo collapsed and died immediately after his victory. Nonetheless, judges declared the dead man the winner, and Emperor Otto II ordered Gero’s execution by decapitation.

7. Pope Formosus

In January 897, Pope Stephen VI convened a post‑mortem trial against his predecessor Pope Formosus, who had died nine months earlier. Stephen exhumed Formosus’s corpse, propped it on a chair, and charged him with perjury, ambition for the papacy, and violations of canon law.

The dead pope was found guilty; his papacy was declared null, his appointments void, and his fingers were severed. Formosus’s body was then dumped into the Tiber River.

Public outrage forced a second trial later that year, which restored Formosus’s reputation and granted his remains an honorable burial.

8. Pandonus

Anti‑Jewish sentiment permeated medieval Europe, restricting Jews from many professions, imposing distinctive clothing, and barring them from public office or marriage to Christians.

In 14th‑century Avignon, a Jewish man named Pandonus was accused of adultery after having relations with a Christian woman. Although he confessed, jurist Oldradus de Ponte argued that without a marriage, the act could not be classified as adultery.

Two judges disagreed; one ordered Pandonus’s castration, displaying his genitals on the royal palace doors as a warning to mixed couples.

9. Rolandino Ronchaia

Rolandino Ronchaia, a 14th‑century Venetian hermaphrodite, was born with a penis yet developed full breasts and a strikingly feminine appearance. He married a woman, but the marriage dissolved because he could not achieve an erection.

After his wife left, Ronchaia moved into a relative’s house in Padua. A guest, attracted to his feminine features, made a sexual advance, prompting Ronchaia to adopt a female identity, rename himself Rolandina, and work as a prostitute.

His clientele, unaware of his biological sex, swelled until city authorities intervened. Charged with sodomy, Ronchaia was sentenced to be burned alive despite officials acknowledging his intersex condition.

10. Rose De Savage

On a chilly January morning in 1280, Rose de Savage was abducted while en route to church. John de Clifford, leader of the kidnappers, took her to his home, forced her to undress, raped her, and then locked her in an upper‑story bedroom.

Rose endured 21 months of captivity until, on St. Martin’s Day in November 1282, she escaped by leaping from a window. A trial for “rape and breach of the king’s peace” was soon convened against de Clifford.

Clifford denied the accusations, and oddly, Rose herself was imprisoned for failing to provide precise dates of the assault. Although a jury eventually found Clifford guilty, he escaped severe punishment, paying only a fine.

10 Bizarre Legal Context

The cases above illustrate the astonishingly strange and often brutal legal practices that defined medieval Europe’s quest for justice.

When we talk about the 10 recent discoveries reshaping our understanding of ancient Europe, the story reads like a thriller. Not long ago, scholars painted a picture of a slow‑moving civilization lagging behind the glittering empires of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China. Today, a cascade of digs, DNA analyses, and high‑tech surveys reveal a continent buzzing with sophisticated societies, fierce battles, and mysterious peoples.

10 The Origins Of The Celts

Back in 2006, Bertie Currie, who runs McCuaig’s Bar in County Antrim, Northern Ireland, stumbled onto a game‑changing find while digging a driveway. Beneath a hefty stone he unearthed a cache of bones. After police cleared the site of any criminal intrigue, archaeologists swooped in. Their investigation uncovered three skeletons that predate the traditionally accepted arrival of the Celts in Ireland by roughly a millennium.

Radiocarbon dating placed these remains at about 2000 BC. Genetic work carried out by teams at Oxford, the University of Wales, Queen’s University Belfast, and Trinity College Dublin revealed DNA strikingly similar to that of contemporary Irish, Scottish, and Welsh populations. This challenges the long‑standing belief that Celtic groups migrated from mainland Europe into the British Isles between 1000 and 500 BC.

Scholars have since spun a web of theories: some argue the DNA points to earlier migrations from the Middle East and Eastern Europe, suggesting multiple waves before the classic Celtic expansion from Germany, Austria, and Spain. Others, like Barry Cunliffe, see the evidence as indicating that Celtic culture actually sprang from the islands and later spread outward. A further camp even entertains the idea that the Irish may have pre‑dated Indo‑European arrivals altogether. One thing is clear—our picture of prehistoric Ireland is on the brink of a major revision.

9 The Origins Of The Basque

The Basque community, straddling northeastern Spain and southern France, has long baffled scholars. Unlike neighboring peoples, the Basques speak a language isolate—no clear ties to the Indo‑European tongues that dominate Europe.

In 2015, Mattias Jakobsson of Uppsala University proposed that the Basques descend from Iberian farmers who migrated north and blended with an indigenous hunter‑gatherer group. His hypothesis draws on Stone‑Age skeletal remains from northern Spain, suggesting a northward movement between 3,500 and 5,500 years ago. Intermarriage, coupled with geographic and cultural seclusion, helped preserve a distinct Basque genetic signature.

While Jakobsson’s work supports the idea of a unique Basque lineage, later genetic surveys have shown that the Basques share a substantial amount of DNA with other Europeans, casting doubt on the notion of absolute uniqueness.

8 Bronze Age Warfare

For decades, historians maintained that Bronze‑Age combat in Europe was a low‑scale affair, fought by small clan groups. The discovery of a massive battlefield in Germany’s Tollense Valley between 2009 and 2015 turned that notion on its head.

Archaeologists uncovered evidence of two enormous armies clashing on the banks of the Tollense River around 1250 BC. Combatants wielded spears, swords, war clubs, and arrows tipped with bronze and flint. The aftermath revealed hundreds of dead, many of whom were professional warriors, and some hailed from southern and eastern Europe.

The story began with an amateur discovering a punctured skull in 1996, prompting professional teams to investigate further. The battle’s participants wore gold rings, and many looted jewelry from fallen foes. Some researchers even suggest this clash was part of a broader conflict between northern tribes and southern invaders.

7 The Roots Of Europeans

In April 2016, a coalition of geneticists published a landmark paper in Nature detailing several late‑Paleolithic migrations across Ice‑Age Europe. Their findings indicate that populations from the Iberian Peninsula moved north‑westward, while groups from present‑day Greece and Turkey migrated into the Balkans and southeastern plains.

The study posits a single founding population that spread across Europe roughly 33,000 years ago, followed by a re‑expansion 19,000 years ago. About 5,000 years later, a massive eastward influx reshaped the genetic landscape, with the original core residing in northwestern Europe.

Researchers David Reich (Harvard Medical School) and Svante Pääbo (Max Planck Institute) broke down Ice‑Age Europeans into four clusters: the Aurignacians (the Belgian founding group), the Gravettians (their descendants), the Magdalenians (originating in modern Spain), and the Villabruna people (an Italian group bearing both European and Middle‑Eastern DNA).

6 ‘Mega Stonehenge’

Stonehenge has captivated imaginations for centuries, but a 2014 radar survey revealed that the famed site is merely a part of a far larger ceremonial landscape. Roughly 3.2 km (2 mi) from the iconic stones lies a sprawling complex near Durrington Walls, featuring multiple burial mounds, chapels, shrines, trenches, and a colossal “super‑henge” comprising 50 stones within a 330‑meter (1,082‑ft) enclosure.

Dubbed “mega Stonehenge” by researchers of the Stonehenge Hidden Landscapes project, the site likely incorporated local sarsen blocks and may have surrounded natural springs linked to the River Avon. This massive Neolithic complex dwarfs the classic Stonehenge and could be the largest stone monument ever uncovered in Europe, though its precise relationship to Stonehenge remains a mystery.

5 Prehistoric Bulgaria’s Giant Cult Complex

Archaeologists from the New Bulgarian University announced in 2015 the discovery of a monumental Stone‑Age settlement on the Big Island of Durankulak Lake in northeastern Bulgaria. Dating to between 5,500 and 5,400 BC, the site likely belonged to the Hamangia‑Durankulak culture of the Middle Neolithic Balkans.

At its core stood an elaborate cult complex featuring roughly 1,400 graves and a wealth of ritual artifacts. The two‑story structure spanned over 200 square meters (2,220 ft²). Dubbed the “Dobrudzha Troy,” the stone city appears to have collapsed after an earthquake.

Excavations, which began in the 1970s, have unearthed precious jewels, copper, and gold, suggesting the inhabitants were skilled metalworkers who traded across the Mediterranean. Some scholars even propose that this site marks the birthplace of European smelting.

4 Bronze Age Britain’s Pompeii

While the ancient Britons never invented the wheel, a 2016 dig in Cambridgeshire’s fens uncovered what may be the largest Bronze‑Age wheel ever found. The massive oak wheel measured about 3.5 cm (1.4 in) thick and a full meter (3 ft) in diameter, dating to roughly 1,000 BC.

Alongside the wheel, archaeologists recovered a partially buried female skull, roundhouses, animal bones, sedge thatch, timber roofs and floors, cooking pits, tools, and weapons. The settlement met a fiery end about 3,000 years ago, but the preservation is remarkable.

Analysis of teeth and bones shows the community enjoyed a varied diet of lamb, pork, beef, venison, and grains, and relied heavily on carts and boats for transport. Because of the level of preservation, the site earned the nickname “Fenland Pompeii,” offering an unprecedented glimpse into daily life during Bronze‑Age Britain.

3 The Lasting Power Of Knossos

Since Sir Arthur Evans began excavating Knossos in the early 1900s, the Minoan palace on Crete has been a focal point for scholars. Long considered the preeminent power of mainland Greece, Knossos was thought to have collapsed around 1,200 BC due to the Santorini eruption and the Late Bronze‑Age collapse.

However, early 2016 findings from the Knossos Urban Landscape Project revealed that the city rebounded in the 11th century BC, re‑establishing itself as a thriving trade hub. Imports from mainland Greece, the western Mediterranean, Egypt, and the Near East fueled a renewed economy, contradicting earlier narratives of total decline.

2 Ancient Terrorism

A 2006 discovery at Schöneck‑Kilianstadten in Germany, followed by extensive work through 2015, has reshaped our view of early European violence. Archaeologists uncovered the remains of 26 Linear Pottery culture individuals—adults and children—showing clear signs of close‑quarters combat, including crushed and punctured skulls.

Weapons recovered were primarily bone‑crafted arrowheads, but the skeletal evidence also revealed deliberate torture: broken bones and post‑mortem mutilations. The Linear Pottery culture, often dubbed Europe’s “first farmers,” occupied central Europe between 5,600 and 4,900 BC and was once thought to be largely peaceful.

Earlier discoveries, such as a mass grave at Talheim, Germany, and another at Asparn/Schletz, Austria, already hinted at organized violence, while a site near Herxheim, Germany, suggested ritual cannibalism. The Schöneck find appears to be a calculated act of terror intended to intimidate neighboring settlements, though whether it was an isolated incident or part of a larger conflict remains uncertain.

1 The Ness Of Brodgar

In 2012, a team of archaeologists turned their attention to the remote Orkney Islands of Scotland, unveiling the enigmatic Ness of Brodgar settlement, first occupied around 3,200 BC. The site boasts some of Europe’s oldest painted walls and predates Stonehenge by millennia.

According to National Geographic’s Roff Smith, the settlement served as a religious hub for over a thousand years, featuring a wealth of artifacts that illuminate Neolithic spirituality across the British Isles. While the Ness of Brodgar is remarkable, it was part of a broader tapestry of megalithic structures, stone tombs, and villages scattered throughout Orkney.

Its age even rivals the Egyptian pyramids, and evidence suggests extensive trade links between Orkney, mainland Scotland, and wider northern Europe. The site continues to offer tantalizing clues about prehistoric connectivity and cultural exchange.

When we talk about the 10 barbarian tribes that rattled the foundations of Europe, the usual suspects—Huns, Vikings, Mongols—often steal the spotlight. Yet a whole host of lesser‑known peoples waged relentless campaigns that reshaped borders, cultures, and empires. Below we dive into each of these fearsome groups, unpacking their customs, battles, and the legends that still echo today.

Introducing the 10 Barbarian Tribes

From the misty highlands of Scotland to the sun‑baked coasts of North Africa, these tribes and marauders left a trail of blood, fear, and folklore. Their stories are stitched together by fierce warriors, cunning strategies, and a relentless drive to dominate the lands they encountered.

10 The Chatti

As Rome pushed its legions beyond the Italian boot, it bumped into a host of fierce peoples. Among the most formidable were the Germanic groups, which the Romans began to differentiate from the Celts during Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars. Roughly a century later, the Chatti emerged as a nightmare for Rome in the first century AD.

Roman historian Tacitus, in his seminal work Germania, paints a vivid portrait of the Chatti: “hardy bodies, well‑knit limbs, fierce countenances, and unusual mental vigor.” Their initiation rites were equally brutal. New‑made men were expected to grow unshorn hair and beards as a vow to valor, only shedding them after slaying an enemy. Standing over a freshly‑taken corpse, they would reveal their faces, a terrifying declaration of triumph. Those who refused to fight were forced to remain unshorn, a living reminder of cowardice.

According to Tacitus, the Chatti’s veterans were always at the vanguard, forming the first ranks of any battle line. Even in peacetime they bore a grim, war‑ready expression, fighting “until old age leaves them without enough blood in their veins for such stern heroism.” By the third century AD, the Chatti had merged into the Frankish coalition, their legacy living on through the emerging Frankish power.

9 The Harii

To the east—covering modern Czechia, Slovakia, southern Poland, and western Ukraine—the Harii operated on the fringes of the Roman world. Documentation on them is sparse, but their warfare style is strikingly distinct. While the Chatti relied on raw ferocity, the Harii turned to camouflage and psychological terror.

Tacitus records that they “blackened their shields and dyed their bodies, choosing pitch‑dark nights for battle. The shadowy, awe‑inspiring sight of such a ghoulish army sparked mortal panic; no enemy could endure the horror of that vision, and defeat began with the eyes.” Scholars debate their exact identity: some view them as a small Germanic tribe within the Lugii federation of the larger Suevi confederation; others argue they were Celtic peoples predating Germanic migrations.

There’s even a theory that the Harii weren’t a tribe at all but a specialized elite force devoted to Woden (Odin). They supposedly modeled themselves after the mythic Einherjar—ghostly warriors chosen by Odin for the final battle of Ragnarok—adding an almost mythic aura to their night‑time raids.

8 The Picts (Caledonians)

The Romans labeled the northern Scottish peoples as Caledonians, a term that eventually morphed into “Picts,” meaning “painted ones”—a nod to their habit of body‑painting or tattooing. By the seventh century AD, they began self‑identifying as Picts, inhabiting what is now northeastern Scotland.

When Julius Agricola launched a campaign into Scotland around 80 AD, the Romans claimed victory at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Yet they never pursued the Picts further, and the historical record suggests the battle may have been exaggerated. Instead of full conquest, Rome erected defensive structures: Hadrian’s Wall in 122 AD and the Antonine Wall in 142 AD, effectively containing the Pictish threat.

Fourth‑century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus described the Picts as “roving at large and causing much devastation.” Their tactics were classic hit‑and‑run: feigned retreats, sudden ambushes from forested cover, and luring Roman cavalry into traps. These guerrilla methods kept the Romans on edge for centuries.

7 The Vandals

The Vandals originated in what is now southern Poland, moving westward under pressure from the Huns in the early fifth century AD. After raiding Gaul, they settled in the Iberian Peninsula by 409 AD. By 429 AD, the Visigoths forced them across the Strait of Gibraltar into North Africa.

In 435 AD they became nominal Roman clients, but soon broke the treaty, seizing Carthage and establishing a kingdom. Their naval dominance soon extended over Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Malta, Mallorca, and Ibiza, effectively controlling Rome’s grain supply. The English term for the Mediterranean—”Wendelsæ”—literally means “Sea of the Vandals.”

In 455 AD they sacked Rome, looting its treasures but sparing the city’s structures and populace. This act birthed the modern word “vandalism,” coined during the French Revolution. Their reign ended in 533 AD when the Byzantines launched a swift campaign that crushed the Vandal kingdom.

6 The Avars

Following the collapse of the Hunnic Empire, the Avars rose a century later as a new wave of horse‑lord marauders from Central Asia. Though less famed than the Huns, they left a lasting mark, introducing the iron stirrup to Europe and prompting the southward migration of the Serbs and Croats.

Their first European appearance came under Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (527‑565 AD), who hired them as mercenaries. After Justinian’s death, they settled in the Pannonian Plain—modern Hungary—mirroring the Huns’ former domain. Led by Khan Bayan I, the Avars expelled the Gepids and even fashioned the Gepid king’s skull into a drinking cup.

Over two centuries, the Avars raided neighboring lands, using subjugated peoples as cannon fodder. Their primary focus was the Balkans, where they even besieged Constantinople in 626 AD. Charlemagne finally crushed them, capturing their capital known as “The Ring” and seizing their treasure hoard for Paris. By 796 AD the Avar Khaganate had vanished.

5 The Drevlians

The Drevlians—literally “forest dwellers”—were an East Slavic group inhabiting present‑day Ukraine and Belarus north‑west of Kiev between the 6th and 10th centuries AD. Unlike most of their neighbors, they practiced monarchical rule alongside the Polyanians (“field dwellers”), sharing a sort of direct‑democratic decision‑making with their prince.

Christian chroniclers were appalled not by their warfare but by their pagan marriage customs. The Primary Chronicle of the Rus’ describes them as “living like cattle, killing each other, eating impure things, and having no marriage—seizing maidens by capture.” This brutal reputation earned them a notorious place in early medieval lore.

Their downfall came at the hands of Olga of Kiev. After her husband, Prince Igor, was assassinated by the Drevlians, Olga exacted revenge: she buried Drevlians ambassadors alive, burned a bathhouse with noblemen inside, and later hosted a feast in Iskorosten where she ordered the city’s populace massacred, set the settlement ablaze, and enslaved the survivors.

4 The Pechenegs

The Pechenegs were a semi‑nomadic Turkic people who terrorized Eastern and Southeastern Europe from the 8th to the 12th centuries. By the 9th century they occupied a vast stretch between the Ural and Volga rivers, constantly clashing with the Khazars and Oghuz.

At the Byzantine Empire’s urging, they pushed west, attacking Kievan Rus and forcing the Magyars across the Dnieper into the Carpathian Basin. In the 10th century they killed Prince Svyatoslav I (972 AD), even turning his skull into a chalice—a grim tradition among steppe nomads. Their raids intensified, culminating in a siege of Constantinople in 1090.

Eventually the Pechenegs were driven out by the Cumans, and a decisive defeat at the Battle of Beroia in 1122 marked the end of their independent existence.

3 The Magyars

The Magyars were a blend of Turkic and Ugric peoples who originally roamed western Siberia. By the 5th century they migrated southwest, crossing the Don River north of the Black Sea. Their confederation comprised seven tribes, later augmented by three Khazar‑derived groups known as the Kavars.

After being displaced by the Pechenegs, the Magyars entered the Pannonian Plain in 895 AD, swiftly subjugating local populations, defeating the Great Moravian state (906 AD), and annihilating the East Frankish army at the Battle of Pressburg (907 AD). Over the next six decades they raided from Denmark to Spain, and from the Italian and Balkan peninsulas to western France.

By 970 AD their raids tapered, and in 1000 AD they embraced Christianity, founding the Kingdom of Hungary. Modern Hungarians still call themselves Magyars, derived from the original tribal name. The term “Hungary” stems from the on‑Ogur designation meaning “ten tribes,” later embellished with an H to suggest descent from the Huns.

2 The Cumans

From the 11th to mid‑13th centuries, the Eurasian steppe between the Volga and the Lower Danube was dominated by three powers: the Kievan Rus to the north, the Volga Bulgars to the east, and the Cumans to the south. The Cumans were a loosely organized Turkic confederation, never fully centralized but capable of fielding formidable cavalry forces.

First clashing with Kievan Rus in 1055, the Cumans embarked on a 175‑year war, ravaging territories across the region. Their raids reached the Kingdom of Hungary, the Volga Bulgars, Poland, the Byzantine Empire, and Balkan states. They also acted as kingmakers, helping the Bulgars and Vlachs break free from Byzantine dominance to form the Second Bulgarian Empire, and aiding Georgia against Seljuk encroachment.

Their demise arrived with the Mongol invasions of the 1230s‑1240s. Though they resisted fiercely, the Mongols shattered the Cuman confederation. Survivors either assimilated into neighboring societies—most notably Hungary—or fled, ending the Cumans as a distinct political entity.

1 The Barbary Pirates

Named after the Berber tribes of north‑west Africa, the Barbary pirates ruled the Mediterranean seas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. Though piracy existed earlier, the arrival of the famed corsair Barbarossa unified the pirate enclaves of Algeria and Tunisia under Ottoman protection during the 1500s.

These raiders—primarily Berbers but also Arab, Muslim, and even some European Christian recruits—plundered merchant vessels, sacked coastal villages, and enslaved people from Italy, France, the Iberian Peninsula, England, the Netherlands, Ireland, and as far north as Iceland.

By the late 18th century, commerce in the Mediterranean dwindled, prompting the United States to pay tribute to the Barbary states in 1784. This sparked the First Barbary War (1801‑1805) between America and Tripoli, curbing piracy. The final blow came with France’s conquest of Algeria in 1830, which eradicated the Barbary threat.

Medieval Europe was a violent place where ruthless kings ruled with iron fists. Among the many tools of power, 10 daring assassinations stood out as shocking, brutal, and sometimes ingeniously clever ways to remove a tyrant or political rival.

10 Daring Assassinations That Shocked Medieval Europe

10 Duke Conan II Of Brittany

In 1065, William of Normandy was preparing to invade England. To secure his borders, he proposed alliances with the surrounding lords. However, Duke Conan II of Brittany hated the Normans because he believed they had poisoned his father. Conan refused to ally with William and strongly implied that he would attack Normandy as soon as the army left for England.

This turned out to be a bit of a mistake since William quickly had Conan poisoned as well. According to Orderic Vitalis, William had to be clever about it since the Breton would obviously have been careful to avoid the same fate as his father. So instead of targeting Conan’s food, William’s assassin smeared poison on Conan’s riding gloves. While out riding, Conan wiped his mouth with the back of one glove and soon suffered a fit and died.

9 Kenneth II Of Scotland

Kenneth II was assassinated in AD 995. The death is primarily notable for the absolutely insane story of the booby trap that did it. According to John of Fordun, the princes Constantine and Gryme persuaded a noblewoman named Finnguala to do the deed. Since Kenneth had killed her son, she was happy to oblige.

Finnguala rigged up her house with multiple crossbows hidden behind tapestries. The crossbows were connected by strings to a statue in the middle of the room. Finnguala then invited the king to inspect the statue. As soon as he touched it, the crossbows went off, firing a dozen arrows through him at once.

We can say for sure that Kenneth was killed in AD 995 and that Constantine and Gryme were blamed. However, most historians are skeptical of a crazy crossbow statue as the murder weapon.

8 Louis, Duke Of Orleans

Charles VI of France was insane. (Among other things, he believed that he was made of glass and might shatter at any moment.) This prompted his nobles to struggle among themselves for power.

The immediate winner was the king’s brother, Louis of Orleans, who seduced the queen and effectively became regent. Louis was opposed by John the Fearless of Burgundy, who even tried to kidnap the king’s son. In response, Louis may have tried to rape John’s wife.

Things came to a head on November 23, 1407. Louis was leaving the queen’s house in Paris when he was attacked by a gang of eight hooded men. An eyewitness said that they struck Louis repeatedly “as if they were beating a mattress” until his brains were all over the road. John didn’t even try to deny ordering the murder, insisting that it was “for the good of the realm.”

7 John The Fearless

The murder of Louis of Orleans sparked a civil war between his Armagnac supporters and John the Fearless of Burgundy. This was the last thing France needed because it was the middle of the Hundred Years War and the English were invading.

In 1419, the two sides agreed to meet to resolve their differences in a special enclosure in the middle of the Montereau Bridge. However, as soon as John the Fearless arrived, three old friends of Louis of Orleans pulled out swords and killed him in revenge.

Although the Armagnacs insisted that the murder was not premeditated, John’s son Philip allied with the English, changing the tide of the war. It was later joked that the English entered France through the hole in John’s skull.

6 Peter The Inquisitor

In the 13th century, the Catholic Church was campaigning against the Cathars, a heretical sect that believed in two gods, one good and one evil. The Albigensian Crusade had devastated the Cathar stronghold in southern France, while the Inquisition was established to hunt them throughout Europe.

One of the best inquisitors was Peter of Verona, who was known for his humble lifestyle and was unusually successful at persuading Cathars to rejoin Catholicism. As a result, the Cathar underground in Milan gathered funds and hired a pair of hit men. The killers tracked Peter to a lonely spot on the road, where they jumped him and put an axe through his head.

Peter was immediately declared a saint, and Pope Innocent IV released a bull allowing Inquisitors to use torture for the first time. Interestingly, one of the hit men, Carino of Balsamo, later repented and is now considered something of a holy man.

5 Philip De Montfort

Philip de Montfort had an interesting family history. His father and uncle were leaders of the Albigensian Crusade, while his cousin Simon was the lover of Queen Isabella of England. The couple eventually overthrew and murdered Isabella’s husband, Edward II.

Philip was Crusader Lord of Tyre. His talented leadership alarmed the Egyptian Sultan Baibars, who asked the notorious Hashishin (“Assassins”) to take care of the problem.

A Syrian Assassin was sent to Tyre, where he successfully disguised himself as a Christian and prayed daily at Philip’s church. Once the Assassin was a familiar face, he wandered up behind Philip while he was kneeling at prayer and stabbed him in the back. Baibars attacked the Crusader states a few months later.

4 Godfred Of Denmark

Godfred was king of Denmark around AD 800 when the famous Frankish Emperor Charlemagne dominated Europe. Charlemagne had conquered the pagan Saxons and forcibly converted them to Christianity, which was quite alarming to the pagan Godfred. In anticipation of a confrontation, he greatly expanded the Danevirke, a mighty series of earthen fortifications in southern Denmark.

When the Baltic city of Reric allied with Charlemagne, Godfred attacked and destroyed it. In 810, his fleets ravaged Frisia and Godfred began to talk of reconquering Saxony. According to Frankish chroniclers, Godfred boasted that he would stable his horses in Charlemagne’s palace. Furious, the emperor began building a fleet of his own.

It seemed that everything was set for a huge war between the Franks and Vikings until Godfred was suddenly stabbed to death by one of his own warriors. Many historians have suggested that the murder was ordered by Charlemagne, who presumably found assassins cheaper than fleets.

3 Godfred Of Frisia

Murdering Danes named Godfred seemed to run in the family because Charlemagne’s grandson Charles the Fat did the same thing. Charles had named a Viking called Godfred as the Duke of Frisia. In return, Godfred agreed to stop raiding Frankish lands and to keep other Vikings from doing the same.

Unfortunately, Godfred got greedy. Frisia was poor land, so Godfred demanded that Charles give him some rich, wine‑producing areas along the Rhine. This attempt at extortion seriously annoyed the Franks. They invited Godfred to discuss the issue on an island in the Rhine. To Godfred’s surprise, the previously meek Franks showed up armed to the teeth and hacked him to death.

2 Harthacnut

It’s often forgotten now, but the Norman invasion of William the Conqueror was actually the second time that England had been conquered in 50 years. Cnut (aka Canute) of Denmark made himself king of England in 1018. After his death, the throne eventually passed to his son Harthacnut.

Edward the Confessor was the son of the overthrown Anglo‑Saxon king of England. Thanks to some complicated family politics, he was also Harthacnut’s half‑brother. (They shared a mother.) If Harthacnut died, Edward was in line for the throne. As luck would have it, Harthacnut did die after suffering a mysterious fit at a banquet at age 25.

So what’s suspicious about that? Well, after Edward took the throne, the rebellious Earl Godwin of Wessex also died after suffering a mysterious fit while eating dinner with the king. Meanwhile, Edward’s half‑brother dropped dead days after returning to England from exile in Kiev. Which starts to seem a little suspicious, really.

1 Pedro The Cruel

Pedro the Cruel was not a nice guy. As king of Castile, he was accused of numerous crimes. This included the murder of his brother Fadrique, who was dining with Pedro when a guard walked up behind Fadrique and hit him with a mace. When Pedro noticed that Fadrique was still moving, Pedro gave a knife to a page to finish the job while Pedro continued eating.

Fadrique’s twin, Enrique, soon rose in revolt and besieged Pedro in his castle. Enrique was supported by the famous French knight Bertrand du Guesclin. Bertrand had a reputation as a bit of a weasel, so Pedro offered him a bribe to help him escape. Since Bertrand was actually a huge weasel, he accepted and then informed Enrique, who agreed to match the bribe if Bertrand handed Pedro over.

On March 23, 1369, Bertrand helped Pedro sneak out of the castle and led him to a tent. To Pedro’s surprise, Enrique was waiting for him. The Spanish princes immediately started throwing insults, calling each other “son of a whore” and “son of a Jew.” Then they started wrestling. Pedro was winning until someone pulled him off and sat on him while Enrique stabbed him in the stomach.

When you think of the medieval era, you might picture chivalry and castles, but the reality was often far messier. In fact, the continent was peppered with a handful of particularly audacious scoundrels. These 10 notorious rogues left a trail of terror, loot, and legend across Europe, proving that lawlessness could be as organized as any royal army.

Why These 10 Notorious Rogues Matter

Each of these villains exploited the cracks in feudal authority, turning chaos into personal empire. Their stories reveal how mercenary bands, pirate crews, and renegade nobles could rival kings, and why their names still echo in the annals of history.

10 Seguin De Badefol

Seguin de Badefol first surfaces in the chronicles as a hired sword for King John II of France. After the French king suffered defeat at the hands of the Black Prince at Poitiers, a peace treaty forced the dismissal of the royal mercenaries, leaving men of war without pay.

Rather than disperse, the bands simply morphed into marauding gangs. Badefol commanded the Margot, a formidable troupe that could muster up to two thousand men. His signature extortion scheme involved seizing a town, then demanding a hefty “leave‑our‑city” fee from its inhabitants.

When the crown finally sent an army in 1362, Badefol cleverly united the scattered companies into a single “Great Company” and crushed the royal force at the Battle of Brignais. The victory gave him free reign over eastern France, and his reign ended four years later when a poisoned quince, intended as tribute from the ruthless Charles “the Bad” of Navarre, claimed his life.

9 Geoffrey Of Mandeville

After King Henry I died without a male heir, the English throne became contested between his daughter, Empress Matilda, and Stephen of Blois. The resulting civil war—known as the Anarchy—left law and order in tatters across the realm.

Amid the turmoil, Geoffrey of Mandeville, a noble from East Anglia, rose to notoriety. Stephen initially rewarded him with the earldom of Essex for his support, but Geoffrey quickly switched sides, accepting Matilda’s promise of near‑unlimited authority over Essex. He later defected back to Stephen, trading his new lands for control of Middlesex and Hertfordshire.In 1143, Stephen attempted to curb Geoffrey’s ambitions, but the earl fled into the marshy fens of East Anglia, establishing a fortified base on the Isle of Ely. From there he launched raids, burning villages and terrorizing the countryside until an arrow struck him during a minor skirmish in 1144, ending his violent career.

8 Robert Fitz Hubert

During the Anarchy, King Stephen bolstered his forces with Flemish sellswords, a group that quickly earned a reputation for cruelty. Among them, the ferocious Robert Fitz Hubert stood out as perhaps the most brutal.

Robert arrived on English soil in 1139, but instead of entering Stephen’s service, he immediately seized Malmesbury Castle for himself. After Stephen expelled him, the mercenary turned to Matilda, offering his band for hire.

Not content with short‑term contracts, Robert slipped away from Matilda’s army and, in a daring nocturnal assault, captured Devizes Castle. He then summoned additional Flemish knights and embarked on a campaign to carve out a petty kingdom between Winchester and London. His ambitions were thwarted when John the Marshal tricked him into a false surrender, only to slam the castle gate shut as Robert entered, leading to his execution by hanging.

7 Eustace The Monk

At the height of his notoriety, Eustace the Monk was whispered about as a sorcerer‑like figure. Originally a monk, he fell from grace, was declared an outlaw, and fled to the English Channel where he became the era’s most infamous pirate.

Eustace proved a master of naval warfare, earning the attention of King John of England, who hired his fleet to wrest the Channel Islands from French control. Using the isle of Sark as a base, he raided the Norman coast and even ventured down the Seine for daring plunders.

In 1212, Eustace switched allegiance to the French, but his fleet met a brutal English counter‑attack in 1217. The English sailors hurled quicklime onto the enemy vessels, blinding crews and forcing a chaotic melee. Eustace was discovered hiding in the bilge of his own ship and was beheaded, condemned as “a traitor to the king and a most wicked pirate.”

6 Owain Red Hand

Owain Lawgoch, known as the “Red Hand,” was the last male‑line descendant of the ancient Welsh kings of Gwynedd and a celebrated warrior of the fourteenth century. Determined to reclaim his ancestral throne, he launched two separate invasions that sent shockwaves through England.

The first fleet was thwarted by a violent storm that prevented a landing, while the second expedition was diverted to aid the French king. When not attempting to seize Wales, Owain fought for France during the Hundred Years’ War, leading a company of Welsh mercenaries against Pedro the Cruel of Castile.

In 1375, he headed the Guglers—an immense mercenary army that marched into Switzerland—only to be ambushed in a night attack by enraged Swiss citizens. His life ended in 1378 when an English undercover agent assassinated him, ending the last hope of a Welsh royal resurgence.

5 Roger De Flor

Roger de Flor began his career as a member of the Knights Templar, but his disgraceful conduct during the Siege of Acre—where he commandeered a Templar galley and extorted exorbitant fees from civilians fleeing to Cyprus—earned him expulsion from the order.

After a stint as a pirate, Roger seized an opportunity when the king of Aragon dismissed thousands of soldiers following a peace treaty in 1302. He recruited roughly six thousand hardened fighters into a mercenary force known as the Catalan Company and secured a lucrative contract with the Byzantine emperor.

The Catalans achieved modest success against the Turks but quickly turned to looting Byzantine lands and clashing with imperial troops. Roger’s ambitions grew as he plotted to carve out his own kingdom in Anatolia. The Byzantines, branding him a bandit, assassinated him in 1305, ending his turbulent quest for power.

4 The Catalan Company

After Roger de Flor’s murder, the Byzantine Empire dispatched an army to eradicate his mercenaries. Though outnumbered, the veteran Catalan Company turned the tables, crushing the imperial forces at the Battle of Apros in 1305.

Following a rather feeble attempt to blockade Constantinople, the Company crossed into Greece, where the Duke of Athens recognized the threat they posed. He cleverly offered to hire the Catalans, hoping to redirect their ferocity.

The mercenaries seized extensive territories for the duke, but payment never arrived. In a bid to split the Company, the duke promised full wages and land to 500 Catalans who would turn against their comrades. Those 500 accepted the bribe, yet instead of betraying the rest, they secured their own share and delivered a stunning victory over the duke’s larger army, establishing a petty kingdom in Greece that endured for eight decades.

3 Adam The Leper

Mid‑fourteenth‑century England endured a wave of urban crime so severe that even the Black Prince’s servants were once ambushed, beaten, and robbed while buying food. The most infamous gang leader of this era was Adam the Leper, whose crew habitually targeted royal officials and wealthy merchants.

Adam’s most daring caper involved learning that Queen Philippa had entrusted a local merchant with a cache of valuable jewelry. The leper’s band surrounded the merchant’s house, demanding the jewels be handed over.

The merchant, refusing to surrender, fought back fiercely, repelling several assaults. Frustrated, Adam set the building ablaze, forcing the terrified merchant and his family to scramble for escape. In the chaos, Adam’s men held the flames at bay, compelling the merchant to surrender the precious gems. Remarkably, historical records suggest Adam escaped any punishment for this audacious theft.

2 Momcilo

Hajduk Momcilo rose from humble beginnings to become a feared Bulgarian brigand, commanding a personal army of peasants in the rugged Rhodope Mountains. Though he briefly served Stefan Dušan of Serbia, Momcilo truly came into his own during the Byzantine Civil War of 1341‑1347.

His reputation for backstabbing is legendary: he switched allegiances three consecutive years—1343, 1344, and 1345—playing both sides of the conflict to cement his own power in the contested borderlands.

Momcilo’s growing influence alarmed both the Byzantines and the emerging Ottoman Turks, prompting a joint assault on his stronghold at Peritheorion. Anticipating the tide turning against him, the city’s inhabitants locked his forces out of the gates, leading to his defeat and death at the hands of his own adversaries.

1 The Archpriest

Arnaud de Cervole, known as the Archpriest of Velines, abandoned clerical life for the chaotic world of mercenary warfare. After the Battle of Poitiers, he quickly realized that the weakened French crown could no longer contain the roaming bands of soldiers‑for‑hire.

He assembled the first “Great Company,” leading his troops into Provence, a region that had largely escaped the war’s devastation. Within months, his forces turned the once‑peaceful province into a scorched wasteland, even laying siege to Marseille with a force of three thousand men—though the city managed to hold out.

In 1358, the Archpriest cemented his notoriety by effectively holding the Pope hostage: he surrounded the Papal seat in Avignon and demanded a ransom of twenty‑thousand florins to withdraw his men. After extracting the payment, he returned to conventional mercenary work, joining the royal army that later suffered defeat at the Battle of Brignais at the hands of Seguin de Badefol’s raiders.

By 1365, Arnaud was hired to lead a crusade against the Turks—a venture whose true purpose was to remove his unruly band from French soil. During a heated dispute over supplies, he was stabbed to death, ending the career of one of medieval Europe’s most infamous mercenary leaders.

When you think of medieval Europe, you probably picture pious monks, towering cathedrals, and a strict code of chastity. Yet the continent was also a hotbed of lurid love affairs, secret trysts, and outright scandal. In this roundup we tally the 10 sex scandals that shocked medieval Europe, each more eyebrow‑raising than the last.

10 Abelard And Heloise

Why This Is One Of The 10 Sex Scandals That Shocked Medieval Europe

In the early 1100s, Peter Abelard rose to fame as the most celebrated philosopher and teacher across the continent. Crowds thronged his lectures, and wealthy students paid handsomely for his tutoring. The scandal erupted when Abelard began a clandestine liaison with one of his brightest pupils, the stunning and intellectually formidable Heloise.

Heloise happened to be the niece of Fulbert, a canon of Notre‑Dame and Abelard’s landlord. When Fulbert uncovered the affair, he demanded that the couple wed. Neither party was enthusiastic, but they consented on the condition that the marriage remain hidden. After Heloise gave birth to a son they named Astrolabe, Fulbert publicly disclosed the union, only for Heloise to deny it outright, inflaming Fulbert’s fury.

Abelard fled with Heloise to a remote convent for safety, an act that only deepened Fulbert’s wrath. In 1117 a band of men burst into Abelard’s chambers and viciously castrated him. Remarkably, Abelard survived, entered monastic life, and maintained a lifelong correspondence with Heloise.

9 Katherina Hetzeldorfer

During the late 1400s, a young, unmarried individual arrived in the German city of Speyer and quickly earned a reputation as a libertine, assaulting women and indulging in numerous affairs throughout the carnival season. The town paid little heed—until 1477, when the perpetrator’s true identity was revealed: a woman named Katherina Hetzeldorfer.

Trial records disclose that Katherina fashioned a prosthetic phallus “half as big as an arm…with a red piece of leather, at the front filled with cotton, and a wooden stick stuck into it.” She used this contraption to engage in intercourse with several women, all of whom testified that they were unaware of the deception. One of Katherina’s lovers, Else Muter, even swore that the device apparently produced “semen…beyond measure.”

Katherina met a grim fate when she was drowned in a local river. The court, recognizing that her partners had been duped, sentenced them to exile rather than death, sparing them the ultimate penalty.

8 The Swedish King And His Sister‑In‑Law

Princess Jutta, daughter of King Eric IV of Denmark, was originally consigned to a cloister, expected to live out her days as a nun. Defying expectations, she escaped to Sweden, where her sister Sophia welcomed her. Sophia’s husband, King Valdemar of Sweden, soon embarked on a passionate affair with the newly arrived Jutta, even fathering a child with her.

The scandal erupted across Sweden as rumors swirled that the king had been unfaithful to his queen with her own sister. In an attempt to atone, Valdemar embarked on a pilgrimage to Rome, seeking papal forgiveness. The Pope, however, levied a hefty fine, turning the pilgrimage into a financial burden for the Swedish populace.

The public outrage over the extra taxation, combined with the scandalous affair, led to Valdemar’s swift overthrow by his brothers, ending his turbulent reign.

7 The Naughty Nuns Of Littlemore

In 1517, a bishop inspected Littlemore Priory in Oxfordshire, England, and uncovered a series of scandalous behaviors among its inhabitants. The nuns were reported to “romp and play with boys in the cloister,” a conduct that shocked ecclesiastical authorities.

Even the prioress was implicated, having borne an illegitimate daughter with a priest from Kent. To provide for her offspring, the prioress allegedly pilfered valuable items from the convent—selling candlesticks, basins, shetts, pelouses, and even feather‑filled beds to fund a dowry.

The nuns showed little remorse. When one sister was placed in the stocks as punishment, three other nuns broke down the door, liberated their companion, set fire to the stocks, and escaped through a window, demonstrating bold defiance.

Ultimately, the scandal could not be ignored. Cardinal Wolsey ordered the dissolution of Littlemore Priory, bringing an end to its notorious reputation.

6 The Pervy Pope

John XII ascended to the papacy at the tender age of eighteen, thanks to the influence of his powerful family. He quickly demonstrated a preference for sensual pursuits over spiritual duties, transforming the papal palace into something resembling a brothel. Monks in the vicinity reportedly stopped praying for his health, instead begging him to die.

The scandal quickly spread throughout Europe. The Holy Roman Emperor dispatched a warning, accusing the Pope of homicide, perjury, sacrilege, and incest with several female relatives, including two sisters.

John XII met his end in 964 while allegedly making love with a woman named Stefanetta. Some accounts claim he suffered a stroke from the exertion; others suggest Stefanetta’s jealous husband burst into the chamber and hurled the Pope out a window, ending his notorious reign.

5 William The Conqueror

Today, William I of England is best remembered as William the Conqueror. In his own lifetime, however, he was often derisively called “William the Bastard” or “William the Tanner,” a reference to his birth from a teenage liaison between Duke Robert of Normandy and a tanner’s daughter from Falaise.

Although Robert had no other sons and William was later legitimized, the stigma of his origins haunted him. When he besieged Alençon, townsfolk dangled animal skins from the walls, chanting, “Hides, hides for the tanner! Plenty of work for the tanner!” In fury, William retaliated by catapulting severed hands at the crowd.

William’s descendants seemed to take the joke in stride. Henry II, while stitching a torn glove, recalled a bishop’s remark that he resembled his Falaise relatives, prompting Henry to burst into uncontrollable laughter.

4 The Demon‑Kings Of England

Henry II’s lineage carried a darker reputation. While his mother was William the Conqueror’s granddaughter, his father, Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, hailed from a family rumored to be descended from demons. Legend tells of an early count who wed the enchanting Melusine, only to discover she slipped out of church before the Eucharist.

One day, the count stood on her cloak to prevent her escape. As the priest raised the Host, Melusine screamed, sprouted wings, and flew out the window, leaving behind two demonic offspring. Though modern scholars dismiss the tale, the Plantagenets embraced it, often joking about being half‑demon.

Both Henry II and his son Richard the Lionheart were known to jest about their infernal ancestry. Bernard of Clairvaux famously summed up popular opinion: “From the Devil they came and to the Devil they will return.”

3 The King, His Son, His Wife, And Her Brother

In a particularly tangled scandal, King Henry II, his son Richard the Lionheart, and Princess Alys of France became entangled in a web of broken betrothals and rumored affairs. Alys had been betrothed to Richard in childhood and was sent to live with Henry at age nine. Despite Alys reaching marriageable age, Henry refused to sanction the union.

Rumors soon swirled that Henry had taken Alys as his own mistress. The Pope threatened to excommunicate the entire kingdom unless Richard and Alys were wed. King Louis of France demanded either a marriage or the return of his daughter. Henry grudgingly consented but delayed setting a date for years.

Complicating matters further, some historians suggest Richard may have been involved with Alys’s brother, Philip. After Henry’s death, Richard declined to marry Alys, claiming she had already given birth to his half‑brother, thereby ending the scandal in a dramatic fashion.

2 Heretical Spooning

In the later medieval period, the Church grew increasingly anxious about heretical sects, urging them to confess not only doctrinal crimes but also lurid sexual deeds. One notorious case involved a German heretic named Lepzet, who admitted that his sect convened in a cavern where their bishop would insert the handle of a silver spoon into his anus to hold an offering.

According to Lepzet’s confession, the congregation then kissed the bishop’s buttocks and even a cat’s rectum before engaging in an orgy described as “men with men and women with women.” Though some modern scholars suspect Lepzet fabricated the tale, the confession caused considerable shock.

1 Machiavelli, Da Vinci, And The Holes Of Truth

In the 1400s, Florence installed a series of public boxes known as “holes of truth,” where citizens could anonymously submit accusations for official investigation. This system proved fertile ground for rumor‑mongering and scandal.

Even Niccolò Machiavelli found himself forced to deny accusations that he had sodomized a local courtesan named La Riccia. He likely told a falsehood; in a letter he noted that La Riccia jokingly called him her “house pest” because he visited her frequently.

The most explosive allegation emerged in 1476, when several notes accused Leonardo da Vinci and three other Florentine notables of regularly having sex with a 17‑year‑old named Jacopo Saltarelli. The city buzzed with gossip, and Leonardo was summoned by the Officers of the Night for questioning. Ultimately, the charges were dropped, allowing the master artist to continue his illustrious career.

If you’ve got a solid 1 week Europe window, you can either dive into two bustling metropolises or soak up one major city with a handful of day‑trips. The key is balance: cramming too many stops steals roughly half a day in transit, while too few can feel under‑whelming. Below you’ll find 25 hand‑picked itineraries that let you experience a lot without feeling like you’re sprinting through a marathon.

1 Info On These Itineraries

When you have six full days for exploration, the temptation to squeeze in as many sites as possible is real. However, each extra city typically costs you about half a day in travel. Our curated routes are built to give you maximum impact—plenty of sights, manageable pacing, and a dash of spontaneity.

2 Paris And Amsterdam, France And Netherlands

This combo is a first‑timer’s dream. Dive into world‑class museums in both cities, marvel at Parisian landmarks, then wander hand‑in‑hand along Amsterdam’s canals. The high‑speed Thalys train makes the hop effortless, and you can start either direction.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Amsterdam, Netherlands
Days Two and Three: Tour Amsterdam
Day Four: Take the morning train to Paris
Days Five and Six: See Paris
Day Seven: Leave Paris

3 The Norwegian Fjords, Norway

Explore southern Norway’s jaw‑dropping scenery. Ideal for hikers and road‑trip lovers, this itinerary launches in Stavanger—your base for the iconic Pulpit Rock and the daring Kjeragbolten. Then head to Odda for Trolltunga, glide on the Flåm Railway, and wrap up in Bergen.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Stavanger
Day Two: See Kjeragbolten
Day Three: Hike Pulpit Rock, drive to Trolltunga
Day Four: Explore Trolltunga
Day Five: See Flam and Myrdal
Day Six: Road trip to Bergen
Day Seven: Last Day in Bergen

4 Berlin And Prague, Germany And Czech Republic

Blend culture‑rich Berlin with the fairy‑tale charm of Prague. Start in Berlin’s vibrant squares and museums, then rent a car for a scenic drive to the magical Rakotzbrücke and Bastei Bridge, before ending your week wandering Prague’s lively streets.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Berlin
Days Two and Three: See Berlin
Day Four: Go to Rakotzbrücke and Bastei Bridge, sleep in Dresden
Days Five Through Seven: Enjoy Prague

5 Budapest, Vienna And Bratislava, Hungary, Austria, And Slovakia

Spend a week hopping between Budapest’s Danube charm, Vienna’s imperial elegance, and a day‑trip to Bratislava’s hidden gems. Direct train links make hopping a breeze—fly into Budapest, depart from Vienna, or vice versa.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Land in Budapest
Days Two and Three: Explore Budapest
Day Four: Go to Vienna
Days Five and Six: Visit Vienna
Day Seven: Take a Bratislava day trip from Vienna

6 Iceland

Iceland offers a compact, mind‑blowing outdoor playground. In a week you can road‑trip across volcanic landscapes, soak in the Blue Lagoon, chase the Northern Lights, or trek the Highlands.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Iceland, See Blue Lagoon
Day Two: Visit Reykjavik
Day Three: Go to Golden Circle
Day Four: Take Landmannalaugar Day Trip
Days Five through Seven: See the South Coast of Iceland

7 London And The Cotswolds, England

After a whirlwind of London sights, escape to the bucolic Cotswolds. Visit Stonehenge’s ancient stones, Bath’s Georgian spa, Oxford’s dreaming spires, and the picture‑perfect villages of Woodstock, Lacock, and Bourton‑on‑the‑Water.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Land in London
Days Two and Three: Tour London
Day Four: See Stonehenge and Bath
Days Five and Six: Visit Cotswolds
Day Seven: Back to London

8 Greece

Kick off your island‑hopping saga by landing in Santorini. From there, hop to Naxos, then Mykonos—each island offers a distinct vibe, from volcanic cliffs to vibrant nightlife.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Land in Santorini
Days Two and Three: See Santorini
Days Four and Five: Visit Naxos
Days Six and Seven: Visit Mykonos

9 Copenhagen And Stockholm; Denmark And Sweden

Pedal through Copenhagen’s colorful streets, indulge in its culinary scene, then fly to Stockholm for historic Gamla Stan, Nobel‑prize museums, and a summer island getaway to Sandhamn.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Copenhagen
Days Two and Three: Visit Copenhagen
Day Four: Fly to Stockholm
Days Five and Six: See Stockholm
Day Seven: Visit Sandhamn, Sweden

10 Edinburgh And The Isle Of Skye, Scotland

Edinburgh’s compact city centre lets you walk its castle, whisky bars, and volcanic Arthur’s Seat. Then drive north to the misty Isle of Skye for rugged cliffs, fairy‑tale vistas, and fresh seafood.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Edinburgh
Days Two and Three: Explore Edinburgh
Day Four: Go to the Isle of Skye
Days Five and Six: See Isle of Skye
Day Seven: Return to Edinburgh

11 The French Riviera, France

The glittering Côte d’Azur offers sun‑kissed beaches, vineyards, and world‑class cuisine. Time your visit for Cannes Film Festival or Monaco Grand Prix, or pair it with a two‑day Provence escape.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Nice
Day Two: See Nice
Day Three: Visit Villefranche‑sur‑Mer and Saint‑Jean‑Cap‑Ferrat
Day Four: See Monaco and Èze
Day Five: Explore Antibes and Cannes
Days Six and Seven: Explore more of the French Riviera or see Provence

12 Warsaw And Krakow, Poland

Poland’s historic capitals deliver culture and cuisine. Warsaw’s Old Town and museums contrast with Krakow’s vibrant market square and poignant Auschwitz‑Birkenau day trip.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Warsaw
Day Two: See Warsaw
Day Three: Go to Krakow
Days Four through Six: Tour Krakow
Day Seven: Take the Auschwitz‑Birkenau trip

13 The Lofoten Islands, Norway

Lofoten’s dramatic peaks, white‑sand beaches, and fishing villages make it a photographer’s paradise. Summer brings perfect hiking; winter unveils the Northern Lights.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in the Lofoten Islands
Days Two through Six: Explore islands
Day Seven: Fly to Oslo, fly home

14 Paris And The Alsace Wine Region, France

Foodies and wine lovers can relish three days in Paris before hopping to Colmar, then cruising the Alsace wine route by car before returning to Paris.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Paris
Days Two and Three: Tour Paris
Day Four: Take the train to Colmar
Days Five and Six: Explore the Alsace wine region
Day Seven: Return to Paris via train

15 Croatia And Montenegro

Explore Dalmatia’s azure coastline from Dubrovnik to Split, island‑hop to Hvar or Brač, then cross into Montenegro for Kotor and Biogradska Gora National Park.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Dubrovnik, drive to Split
Day Two: See Split
Day Three: Visit Hvar or Brač
Days Four and Five: Tour Dubrovnik
Day Six: Visit Kotor, Montenegro
Day Seven: Return to Dubrovnik

16 Ireland Road Trip

Begin in Dublin, then chase the western coast’s rugged cliffs, the Rock of Cashel, Ring of Kerry, Skellig Michael, Dingle Peninsula, Doolin, and the iconic Cliffs of Moher before looping back.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Dublin
Day Two: Drive to Killarney, visit Rock of Cashel
Day Three: Visit Ring of Kerry and/or see Skellig Michael
Day Four: See Dingle Peninsula
Day Five: Go to Doolin
Day Six: See Cliffs of Moher
Day Seven: Galway, return to Dublin

17 Munich And Bavaria, Germany

Munich’s urban buzz blends with Bavaria’s alpine charm. Visit Berchtesgaden, Garmisch‑Partenkirchen, Neuschwanstein Castle, and summit Zugspitze before winding down in Munich.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Munich, travel to Berchtesgaden
Day Two: Tour Berchtesgaden
Day Three: Drive to Garmisch‑Partenkirchen
Day Four: See Neuschwanstein
Day Five: Visit Zugspitze
Days Six and Seven: Last two days in Munich

18 Vienna, Salzburg, And Hallstatt, Austria

Start in Vienna’s imperial grandeur, then hop to Salzburg’s musical heritage, and finish in Hallstatt’s postcard‑perfect lakeside village.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Vienna
Days Two and Three: Tour Vienna
Day Four: Travel to Salzburg in the morning and explore
Day Five: See more of Salzburg
Day Six: Visit Hallstatt
Day Seven: Head to Munich or return to Vienna

19 Lucerne And The Jungfrau Region, Switzerland

Base yourself in Zurich, then explore the Jungfrau’s alpine peaks, lakes Thun and Brienz, and finish with a day in the charming town of Lucerne.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Land in Zurich, go to Jungfrau
Days Two through Six: Explore Jungfrau
Day Seven: Take an early morning train to Lucerne; spend the night

20 Lisbon And The Algarve, Portugal

Spend three days soaking up Lisbon’s hills, a day trip to sunny Sintra, then road‑trip down the Algarve’s beaches, Benagil Cave, lagoons, and fishing villages.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Lisbon
Day Two: Explore Lisbon
Day Three: Day trip to Sintra
Day Four: Road trip to the Algarve
Days Five and Six: Explore the Algarve
Day Seven: Last chance in the Algarve, return to Lisbon at night

21 Barcelona With Day Trips, Spain

Three days in Barcelona let you admire Gaudí’s masterpieces, the Gothic Quarter, and tapas culture, then venture to Montserrat, Girona, and the Costa Brava.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Barcelona
Days Two through Four: Explore Barcelona
Day Five: Day trip to Montserrat
Day Six: Day trip to Girona
Day Seven: Last Day/Day Trip to Costa Brava

22 Rome And The Amalfi Coast, Italy

Split a week between Rome’s ancient wonders and the sun‑kissed Amalfi Coast, with a side trip to Pompeii and Capri.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Rome, Italy
Days Two and Three: Tour the city
Day Four: Travel to the Amalfi Coast and visit Pompeii
Day Five: Set out on an Amalfi Coast road trip
Day Six: See Capri
Day Seven: See Sorrento, return to Rome at night

23 Florence And Tuscany, Italy

Delve into the heart of Italy with three days in Renaissance‑rich Florence, then unwind in Tuscan vineyards, hill towns, and rolling countryside.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Florence, Italy
Days Two and Three: Explore Florence
Day Four: Arrive in Tuscany, Italy
Days Five and Six: Tour Tuscany
Day Seven: Leave Tuscany, go back to Florence/Rome, fly home

24 Rome, Florence, And Venice, Italy

For the ambitious traveler, three iconic Italian cities can be woven into a seven‑day whirlwind—fly into Rome, hop to Florence, then glide to Venice.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Land in Rome, Italy in the morning
Days Two and Three: Explore Rome
Day Four: Catch the morning train to Florence
Day Five: See Florence
Day Six: Catch the morning train to Venice
Day Seven: Goodbye, Venice

25 The Norwegian Fjords, Norway

Finish your European sprint with a deep‑dive into Norway’s fjord‑filled south—Stavanger, Kjeragbolten, Pulpit Rock, Trolltunga, Flåm, and Bergen await.

Travel Itinerary
Day One: Arrive in Stavanger
Day Two: See Kjeragbolten
Day Three: Hike Pulpit Rock, drive to Trolltunga
Day Four: Explore Trolltunga
Day Five: See Flam and Myrdal
Day Six: Road trip to Bergen
Day Seven: Last Day in Bergen

Whatever route you choose, a week in Europe can be packed with unforgettable moments, stunning scenery, and cultural immersion. Pack smart, travel light, and let the continent’s charm guide you.

The 10 unusual male witch trials of early modern Europe uncover a shadowy chapter where men, not just women, found themselves tangled in accusations of sorcery, devilry, and supernatural intrigue. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, tens of thousands were put to death for witchcraft, and while the majority were women, a surprising handful of men faced the same fiery fate.

10 Unusual Male Cases of Witchcraft

10 John Fian

In the waning months of 1589, King James VI of Scotland set sail for Scandinavia to wed Princess Anne of Denmark. A ferocious storm stalled the royal vessel, and Danish officials hastily blamed the tempest on witchcraft, arresting and executing six alleged witches. Back in Scotland, rumors swirled that a cabal of sorcerers had plotted to sink the king’s ship, and a schoolmaster named John Fian was named as a chief conspirator.

Legend has it that Fian possessed uncanny abilities: he could glide through the air and unlock doors merely by exhaling upon their locks. One particularly outlandish tale recounts how he instructed a local boy to steal pubic hair from his sister for a love charm, only to be duped with cow hair, which allegedly caused a cow to fall hopelessly in love with him.

Captured on charges of treason and witchcraft, Fian endured brutal torture. He initially confessed, escaped, was recaptured, and then endured further torment that left his nails ripped out and his legs crushed. Despite his defiant refusal to recant, King James VI remained unconvinced. Ultimately, Fian was strangled and then burned at the stake in Edinburgh in January 1591.

9 Thomas Weir

Thomas Weir, a hardened veteran of the English Civil War and a respected, devout elder in Edinburgh, would have seemed an unlikely witch. Yet in 1670, a sudden and shocking breakdown revealed a lifetime of hidden sins. From the age of 16 until she was 50, his sister Jane reported that Weir had repeatedly taken advantage of her, and he had also committed acts of bestiality with mares and cows, as well as illicit affairs with his stepdaughter and maid.

When the scandal leaked, both siblings were arrested for incest. Jane corroborated the lurid accusations and added that her brother and she were witches. Weir openly confessed to witchcraft, claiming he had consorted with the Devil and that his walking stick was, in fact, a wand.

While Jane eventually showed remorse and was convicted of witchcraft, Weir remained unrepentant. Both were sentenced to death, though only Jane received a formal witchcraft conviction. Their tragic end underscores how even the most pious could fall under the dark cloud of witch hysteria.

8 John Walsh

Not every practitioner of magic in early modern Europe was deemed malevolent. In England and Wales, the so‑called “white witch” performed benevolent deeds, often called a cunning‑man, wise‑woman, or conjuror to avoid the stigma attached to the word witch. Despite their popularity among locals, these folk healers were not immune to legal scrutiny.

In August 1566, John Walsh, an English white witch, was detained in Essex and interrogated about his alleged powers. He claimed communion with fairies and asserted he could discern when a person had been bewitched. Walsh also spoke of a familiar—a supernatural helper that could appear as a dog, bird, or a cloven‑footed man—capable of identifying thieves and revealing the locations of stolen goods.

Walsh swore he never harmed anyone with his magic. The ultimate fate of his case remains murky; English courts typically hanged witches rather than burn them, and convictions were rare. It is possible Walsh was acquitted and released, but the historical record offers no definitive answer.

7 Thomas Looten

In September 1659, merchant Thomas Looten found himself embroiled in a macabre rumor: a neighbor boy had died after receiving a plum from Looten. The townsfolk whispered that the fruit was bewitched, and the boy’s untimely death seemed to confirm their fears. Seeking to clear his name, Looten boldly petitioned the bailiff to arrest him and grant a formal trial.

Confident he would prevail without a lawyer or counter‑evidence, Looten’s optimism quickly dissolved. Witnesses testified against him, and a torturer claimed to have discovered the Devil’s mark upon his body. Under the strain of a garrote, Looten confessed to attending sabbaths and claimed his wealth derived from demonic sources.

The confession suited the authorities perfectly. Looten died in jail a day after his admission, his wounds proving fatal. His corpse was burned publicly, and his property seized and sold to cover court expenses, sealing his grim legacy.

6 Quiwe Baarsen

The Sami, Indigenous peoples of Scandinavia, possessed a deep shamanic tradition. For centuries, Norwegians consulted Sami shamans, who claimed the ability to foretell the future and journey beyond their bodies. Central to their rites was a ritual drum that induced trance and allowed the shaman’s spirit to wander.

In 1625, shaman Quiwe Baarsen was hired by a Norwegian named Niels Jonsen to conjure wind for a voyage to the village of Hasvåg. Later, Jonsen’s wife returned, requesting another wind spell to guide her husband’s ship home. Baarsen obliged, but the ensuing gale proved too fierce, and Jonsen and his crew drowned in the storm.

Two years later, in May 1627, Baarsen stood trial in Hasvåg. He openly admitted to creating wind for Jonsen’s vessel and explained the workings of his drum. The Christian court, however, interpreted his testimony as proof of witchcraft, holding him responsible for the drownings and sentencing him to be burned at the stake.

5 Andrew Man

Today, fairies are seen as harmless folklore, yet early modern interrogators sometimes regarded them as demonic disguises or delusions wrought by Satan. Those who claimed intimate contact with fairies could find themselves prosecuted for witchcraft.

In Scotland, several trials mentioned the Queen of Elphame, a fairy monarch married to an angel named Christsonday. Andrew Man, an elderly man tried in 1597, proclaimed a sexual relationship with this fairy queen. He recounted meeting her at the tender age of seven, after which she granted him the power to heal any animal or human.

Man also boasted of other supernatural abilities: stealing a cow’s milk, foretelling the future, and summoning his familiar—Christsonday—by uttering the word “Benedicite.” He even claimed to have kissed Christsonday’s bottom in reverence. To the inquisitors, these bizarre admissions reeked of devilry, and Man was ultimately burned at the stake for witchcraft.

4 Johannes Junius

Between 1624 and 1631, the German city of Bamberg witnessed a wave of hysteria that saw nearly 300 people burned for witchcraft. The paranoia seeped even into the city’s governance, and in June 1628, mayor Johannes Juniur was interrogated after alleged sightings of him at nocturnal sabbaths.

Initially steadfast in his innocence, Junius eventually cracked under torture. He confessed to encountering a demon woman who transformed into a goat, threatening to snap his neck unless he surrendered his soul. The demon reappeared, introducing more infernal entities, and forced Junius to renounce God and worship Satan.

Adopting the name Krix, Junius claimed the demon woman became his lover, urging him to murder his children—a command he resisted, prompting the demon to beat him. In a final act of defiance, Junius penned a secret letter to his daughter, declaring his confessions were “sheer lies” crafted to stave off further torture. He also noted that some of his accusers confessed to perjury and apologized before meeting their own ends.

3 William Godfrey

In 1609, farmer William Godfrey rented a house in New Romney, England, to a couple named John and Susan Barber. The Barbers soon reported eerie dripping and knocking sounds emanating from the ceiling, convincing them the house was haunted. After the birth of their child, Susan swore three familiars sent by Godfrey attempted to steal the infant.

The Barbers abandoned the residence, and the next occupants, the Holtons, suffered similar spectral disturbances. When the Holtons’ son fell ill in 1614, he died an hour after Godfrey visited the house, further cementing his reputation as a malevolent force.

Neighbors finally pressed charges in April 1617. William Clarke, a man convinced Godfrey had bewitched his ducks, became the first witness. During the prolonged trial, Clarke and Godfrey even got into a physical altercation after Godfrey jested about cursing Clarke’s mare. Despite the mounting testimonies, the court acquitted Godfrey in February 1618, instead fining Clarke for assault.

2 Chonrad Stoeckhlin

Chonrad Stoeckhlin was a healer and horse‑wrangler residing in Oberstdorf, Germany. In 1579, he claimed a guardian angel whisked him away on nocturnal journeys to a “strange and distant place.” Accompanied by ethereal travelers known as night phantoms, Stoeckhlin’s voyages allegedly endowed him with powerful healing abilities and the capacity to identify witches.

Armed with these revelations, Stoeckhlin accused a woman named Anna Enzensbergerin of witchcraft in 1586. While Enzensbergerin faced arrest, Stoeckhlin himself was seized for his own alleged sorcery. Authorities interpreted his night‑phantom tales as evidence of witchcraft, viewing his guardian angel as a demonic entity and the distant realm as a sabbath.

Further damning testimony emerged when Enzensbergerin and another accused woman confirmed that Stoeckhlin’s mother had been a witch. After enduring the customary torture, Stoeckhlin confessed that his stories were true. Ironically, the man who once brandished the title “witch‑finder” was sentenced to burn at the stake in January 1587.

1 Louis Gaufridi

In 1609, French priest Father Romillon grew convinced that two nuns, Madeleine and Louise, were possessed by demons. Their convulsions and screams during exorcism attempts intensified the suspicion. Madeleine accused a priest named Louis Gaufridi of raping her at the age of nine and of using spells to fill her with demonic forces.

Months passed without any improvement, and additional accusations surfaced during a second exorcism. In February 1611, Gaufridi was apprehended and interrogated. He admitted to being a witch, explaining that he had discovered a magical tome among his uncle’s belongings. While reading, he inadvertently summoned a demon who struck a bargain: in exchange for his soul, the demon would advance Gaufridi’s career and make any woman fall irrevocably in love with him.

Both Gaufridi and Madeleine testified that they had attended sabbaths together. In April of the same year, Gaufridi was strangled and burned at the stake. Unsurprisingly, Madeleine herself was later charged with witchcraft, receiving a life sentence that was reduced after she served ten years.

Tristan Shaw runs a blog called Bizarre and Grotesque, where he writes about crime, folklore, and unsolved mysteries.