The British Empire, with its sprawling reach and ruthless tactics, left a trail of blood, grief, and rebellion across continents. While the empire’s own atrocities are well‑documented, the people it subjugated often struck back with equally harrowing acts of vengeance. In this roundup we dive into the ten most chilling retaliations that erupted against British rule, each a stark reminder that oppression begets resistance – sometimes in the most savage forms.

10 Brutal Retaliations Overview

10 The Enoch Brown School Massacre

On the summer of 1763, a coalition of Native American forces led by the charismatic Chief Pontiac launched a daring strike against a British outpost near present‑day Detroit, igniting what would become known as Pontiac’s War. The conflict quickly escalated, with a series of sieges and skirmishes that stretched for a full year. Among the many brutal episodes of that war, the British resorted to a grim form of biological warfare, distributing blankets laced with smallpox spores to the indigenous populations.

Amidst this volatile backdrop, Pennsylvania’s Governor John Penn issued a chilling bounty: a reward for every Indian scalp that white settlers could bring in. The promise of profit spurred ruthless groups of colonists to hunt, kill, and scalp Native Americans with impunity, further inflaming the cycle of violence.

In a grim act of revenge, three Native warriors entered the modest schoolhouse of teacher Enoch Brown on July 26, 1764, turning it into a scene of carnage. They bludgeoned Brown and his eleven pupils to death, then removed their scalps in a grotesque display. One child, Archie McCullough, survived the initial assault long enough for his scalp to be taken, though the attackers likely believed he was already dead. Today, a memorial at the massacre site bears the names of Brown, the four children whose identities are known, and “six others (names unknown),” ensuring their tragic story is not forgotten.

9 The Black Hole Of Calcutta

June 1756 saw the city of Calcutta overrun by the forces of Bengal, who swiftly routed the East India Company’s defending troops. Governor John Z. Holwell, along with dozens of European captives, was hauled into a cramped prison cell on June 20. The cell, originally intended for petty criminals, measured a mere 5.5 by 4 metres (approximately 18 by 13 feet), a size suitable for a handful of inmates, not the dozens forced inside.

That night, the captives were left to languish in stifling heat, denied food and water, and pressed together until movement was impossible. Holwell later claimed that 143 men entered the cell and only 23 survived, a figure that was seized by British propaganda to paint the Indian populace as barbaric and to rally support for continued British rule. Modern historians, however, suggest Holwell exaggerated the numbers; a more realistic estimate places the captive count around 64, still far beyond the cell’s capacity.

Even with the lower estimate, the tragedy remains stark: roughly 40 individuals perished in the cramped darkness, while another twenty‑plus endured a night beside the bodies of their fallen comrades. The event, whether mythologized or not, became a potent symbol in the imperial narrative.

8 The Siege Of Cawnpore

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 erupted as one of the most massive uprisings against British colonial rule, culminating in the harrowing siege of Cawnpore (modern‑day Kanpur). Unprepared for a protracted defense, the British forces capitulated, surrendering their women and children to the rebels while the male soldiers were forced to march out of the city. Only four men survived the ordeal, among them Colonel Mowbray Thomson, who later chronicled his experience.Thomson recorded that a total of 210 souls—women, children, and the elderly—were confined within a single house, subsisting on a solitary daily meal and deprived of any furniture or bedding. He noted with a disturbing calm that none of the women were sexually assaulted, suggesting that their dire condition had rendered them “unattractive” to the captors—a disturbing rationalization of cruelty.

When British reinforcements neared, rebel leader Nana Sahib ordered a final, brutal extermination. Reluctant soldiers refused to fire upon defenseless women and children, prompting Sahib to dispatch five of his most ruthless men, knives in hand, to hack the prisoners to death. Their bodies were tossed into a well, some still breathing. The atrocity cemented “Cawnpore!” as a battle cry for British troops, echoing the horror of that day.

7 The Jamestown Massacre

On Good Friday in 1622, the fledgling English settlement at Jamestown was rocked by a savage assault that would become known as the Jamestown Massacre. Relations between the colonists and the surrounding Powhatan Confederacy had been relatively amicable, with Native Americans bringing gifts and sharing breakfast with the English on the morning of the attack.

In a coordinated flash, the Native warriors seized the moment, grabbing any makeshift weapon they could find and launching a ferocious onslaught. In the span of a few harrowing hours, roughly a quarter of the settlement—about 347 souls—were slain. The assailants set fire to structures, slaughtered livestock, and mutilated the bodies of the dead before fleeing the scene.

The aftermath saw forty women taken captive; a year later, records indicated that nineteen of those women were still being held as slaves. The massacre spurred an equally brutal retaliatory response from the English, further entrenching the cycle of bloodshed.

6 The Scullabogue Barn Massacre

British rule over Ireland was perpetually challenged by insurgent sentiment, and the 1798 Irish uprising stands out as a particularly ferocious chapter. On June 5, 1798, a band of Irish rebels seized up to 200 non‑combatant prisoners—men, women, and children—at a farmstead in Scullabogue. The captives were forced into a barn, where they were shot, stabbed, and then locked inside as the doors were shut.

In a final act of terror, the rebels set the barn ablaze. Those inside suffocated, burned, or were trampled to death as the flames consumed the structure. The atrocity was later described by the Lord High Chancellor of Ireland as an event that would “remain a lasting disgrace to human nature.”

5 The Portadown Bridge Massacre

The 1641 Irish uprising saw Irish Catholics rise up against Protestant settlers, igniting a wave of violence that claimed thousands of lives. Among the countless tragedies, the Portadown Bridge massacre in November 1941 stands out for its sheer brutality. Armed Catholic insurgents forced a hundred people—many of them children—into the River Bann.

Eleanor Price, a survivor, recounted the horror: “then and there instantly and most barbarously drowned the most of them. And those that could swim and come to the shore they either knocked them in the hands and so after drowned them, or else shot them to death in the water.” The massacre claimed the lives of five of her own children, underscoring the personal devastation wrought by the conflict.

4 Nine Men’s Misery

In the rolling hills of Rhode Island stands a solemn plaque that reads, “On this spot, where they were slain by the Indians, were buried the nine soldiers captured in Pierce’s Fight, March 26, 1676.” The captured troops were part of Captain Michael Pierce’s militia, which had been lured into a trap during King Philip’s War. While most of Pierce’s men were killed in the initial ambush, ten survived only to be taken prisoner.

Revenge was swift. The Native fighters, angered by the relentless brutality they had endured at the hands of English settlers, subjected the captives to a gruesome fate: the nine men were found decapitated, some possibly skinned alive, and then dismembered. Their burial site earned the moniker “Nine Men’s Misery,” and locals swear that the area is haunted by the tormented screams of the slain.

3 The Schenectady Massacre

On the frigid night of February 8, 1690, a combined force of French‑Canadian settlers and Native American warriors launched a ruthless raid on the English settlement of Schenectady. The raiders had trekked nearly 500 kilometers (300 miles) through wintry snow to reach their target, intent on making every step of the journey count.

At the appointed hour, roughly 190 attackers fanned out around the sleeping town. A handful of men stood watch outside each dwelling, awaiting a signal. When the signal sounded, they surged inside, cutting down families with little warning. Men, women, and children fell indiscriminately, and the attackers showed no mercy in their slaughter.

Within a couple of hours, sixty English colonists—about half the town’s population—were dead. The survivors were rounded up; men and boys were taken as slaves and forced to march back to Canada, while women and girls were left among the corpses as the raiders set fire to every building, ensuring the settlement was reduced to ash.

2 The Fort William Henry Massacre

July 1757 brought a desperate siege to Fort William Henry, New York, where a garrison of roughly 2,000 British troops faced a massive force of French soldiers and Native American warriors. As the siege wore on, the fort’s commander negotiated surrender terms with the French: the British would march out, be disarmed, and refrain from fighting for the next eighteen months.When the British began their orderly withdrawal, the French, hoping to uphold the agreement, were shocked to see the Abenaki warriors—who had fought alongside them—launch a savage attack on the departing soldiers. The Abenaki showed no regard for the truce, slashing at the sick and wounded, and mercilessly killing women and children who had accompanied the troops.

French commander Montcalm eventually intervened to halt the bloodshed, but not before about two hundred British soldiers lay dead. The massacre underscored the fragile nature of wartime accords when cultural understandings of honor differed dramatically.

1 The Khyber Pass Massacre

In the 1830s, the British Empire’s greatest rival was the Russian Empire, and Afghanistan emerged as a pivotal buffer zone. Lord Auckland, the Governor‑General of India, deemed the region crucial, prompting Britain to launch the First Afghan War in 1840—a campaign destined for disaster.

By early 1842, the British garrison in Kabul housed 4,500 soldiers plus 12,000 wives, children, and servants. Facing defeat, the British negotiated safe passage with the Afghan Ameers, planning to retreat through the treacherous Khyber Pass. The agreement, however, was flagrantly ignored.

The Ameers ambushed the column, slaughtering thousands and destroying supply trains. Many perished from frostbite, while roughly 2,000 were captured and enslaved. Of the original 16,500 travelers, only a single soul managed to reach India alive. The tragedy became a stark illustration of the perils of imperial overreach.

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The 10 bloodthirsty struggles of the Tibetan Empire reveal a saga of ruthless ambition, shifting alliances, and spectacular conquests that shattered the myth of a peaceful, passive Tibet. From its humble beginnings in fragmented fiefdoms to a sprawling empire that even threatened the Tang capital, each chapter is a vivid tableau of power, intrigue, and bloodshed.

10 Foundation Of Imperial Power

In the seventh century, the Tibetan plateau resembled a patchwork of petty fiefdoms, each ruled by a local chieftain known as a gyelpo. During this era, Buddhist ideas began to displace older Hindu influences, while Chinese scientific and technological knowledge seeped in for the first time. One by one, these independent territories fell under the growing sway of the Yarlung Kingdom, laying the groundwork for what would become the Tibetan Empire. This unification was spearheaded by the dynamic warlord Namri Songtsen, who operated from a base near Mount Yarlha Shampo on the Bhutan border. He systematically forced neighboring tribes into submission, forging the nucleus of a centralized state.

Namri Songtsen met his end around 620 (sources vary between 618 and 627) through assassination. His death ignited a courtwide insurrection that loyal advisor Myang managed to quell. Yet a treacherous upstart named Zutse implicated Myang in a conspiracy, resulting in Myang’s death when his stronghold was stormed. Zutse then attempted to assassinate Prince Songtsen Gampo, the heir to the throne, but failed and took his own life. In a dramatic gesture, Zutse’s son presented his father’s severed head to Songtsen Gampo, proving his loyalty and securing his family’s fiefdom. Later, Songtsen Gampo’s younger brother attempted to claim the throne but perished in a fire allegedly set by a servant.

9 Destruction Of Zhang Zhung

In Upper Tibet’s western reaches lay the sophisticated kingdom of Zhang Zhung, the cradle of the pre‑Buddhist Bon religion. Bon, a shamanic faith with ties to Zoroastrianism and Hinduism, featured animal sacrifice and juniper burning. According to Bon tradition, Zhang Zhung was ruled by 18 kings—perhaps indicating several dynasties or a confederation of related realms. The kingdom may have used a divine script called “Mar,” meaning “coming from the sky,” though no original manuscripts survive; our knowledge stems from Tibetan conquerors’ chronicles.

At the time of Zhang Zhung’s demise, Limigya held power there, while Songtsen Gampo reigned over Tibet as Tsenpo, styling himself the “Divine Mighty One Magically Manifest.” Initially, Gampo pursued diplomatic ties, hoping to cement a dynastic alliance with Zhang Zhung. However, his sister Semarkar’s marriage to Limigya turned sour; she felt politically sidelined and refused to consummate the union. Her discontent was recorded in the Old Tibetan Chronicle, where she plotted to have her brother subdue her husband’s realm. An emissary was sent to persuade her to bear an heir, but she remained obstinate, prompting Tibetan forces to intervene.

When Semarkar’s poems reached Gampo, he recognized the political opportunity. He accepted her gift of 30 turquoise pieces, deciding to wear them as a man rather than as a woman’s adornment. Gampo then launched an invasion of Zhang Zhung, slaying Limigya and dismantling his power base. The capital, Khyunglung Ngulkhar, became a new administrative hub for central Tibet. The conquest of Zhang Zhung, alongside the highland kingdom of Sumpa, led to the creation of “tongde” administrative units, marking the first unification of the Tibetan plateau and providing the manpower and resources that propelled the empire’s rise.

8 Conquest Of The Tarim Basin

Songtsen Gampo’s grandson, Mangsong Mangtsen, extended Tibetan influence far beyond the plateau. He first subdued the ‘A zha (the Tuyuhun) from Mongolia, a tribe that had clashed with both the Tang dynasty and Tibet. Their leader Nuohebo fled to China, where the Tang resettled his remnants to keep them under control. With the Tuyuhun neutralized, Mangsong turned his gaze westward, pushing Tibetan power into the Tarim Basin—modern Xinjiang—and even reaching the Wakhan Valley of present‑day Afghanistan.

The Tang dynasty, alarmed by the loss of crucial Silk Road oasis cities, attempted to counter Tibet’s expansion. However, the Tibetans managed to subjugate the Western Turks by 670, securing loyalty from key trade hubs such as Kashgar and Khotan. The Tang dispatched a formidable army, only to be decisively beaten at Dafeichuan by General mGar Khri ’bring, leading to a Chinese withdrawal. During this period, the mGar clan (also known as the Gar clan) wielded considerable power behind the throne, with chief minister Gar Songtsan effectively controlling royal authority—a threat the monarchy later had to neutralize.

7 War Against The Clan

The mGar clan traced its roots to the Yuezhi people, having migrated southward after Xiongnu pressure and settling in Tibet around 190 BC. Their name, meaning “blacksmith,” hinted at modest origins, yet over five decades they produced several chief ministers and generals, becoming central to Tibetan expansion. However, their growing influence sparked suspicion. Thrimalo, wife of Mangsong Mangtsen and mother of the child‑king Tridu Songtsen, distrusted the clan. Tang ambassador Kuo Yuan‑chen further exploited these tensions, prompting the mGar to demand Chinese withdrawal from the Tarim Basin on the premise of local self‑rule.

Kuo engaged in diplomatic maneuvering, proposing an exchange: the Nu‑shih‑pi tribes for control over Koko Nor and the Tuyuhun. He believed that a peace settlement would weaken the mGar’s grip on Tibet. His calculations proved accurate; while mGar Khri ’bring triumphed over a larger Chinese force at the “Chinese Graveyard at Tiger Pass,” Tridu Songtsen seized the moment. Under the pretense of a hunting expedition, he arrested and executed over 2,000 mGar members. When Khri ’bring refused surrender, his troops abandoned him, and the general took his own life. Survivors either fled to China—receiving official posts—or perished. Tridu later married multiple regional princesses but died in a campaign against the Nanzhao kingdom in modern Yunnan.

6 Shifting Alliances In Central Asia

The Umayyad Caliphate’s incursion into Bactria in 663 introduced a new player to Central Asian politics. Initially, Buddhists there received dhimmi status—protection without forced conversion. In 680, an Iraqi rebellion distracted the Umayyads, allowing Tibet to ally with Turkmen forces in 705 to expel the Arabs. Though the first attempt faltered, Turkmen leader Nazaktar Khan seized the region in 708, imposing a fanatical Buddhist regime and even beheading a Muslim abbot.

When Arab general Qutaiba reclaimed Bactria, the Tibetans switched sides, aligning with the Umayyads. However, the Arabs demanded that all allies accept Islam, prompting Tibet to host missionary al‑Hanafi—though the court’s reception was icy, and conversion remained minimal. Later, the Tang pushed back, capturing territories from both the Umayyads and the Eastern Turks. The Tang forged an alliance with the Qarluqs, while the Turgesh allied with Tibet, pushing the Chinese further west. Yet, as the Turgesh confederation dissolved, Tibet leaned on its longstanding partnership with the Turki Shahis of Kabul, allowing the Arabs to reclaim some ground.

Interestingly, despite the religious divide—Muslims versus Buddhists—the period was driven more by realpolitik than faith. Alliances shifted, betrayals abounded, and the quest for strategic advantage eclipsed doctrinal concerns.

5 Occupation Of Chang’an

The An Lushan rebellion of 755 crippled the Tang dynasty, creating an opening for aggressive Tibetan officials to stage a coup against Emperor Tride Tsuktsan. They installed the 13‑year‑old Trisong Detsan as emperor, who immediately launched an expansionist campaign. With Chinese border garrisons withdrawn to quell internal unrest, Tibetan forces raided unhindered. In 763, two Tang envoys en route to Tibet were detained as the Tibetans prepared a massive invasion. The Tang emperor fled Chang’an, taking refuge in Shanzhou, while a defeated Chinese general led Tibetan troops straight into the imperial capital.

Although the Tibetans installed a puppet ruler—the uncle of a Chinese princess married into the Tibetan court—their hold on Chang’an lasted a mere 15 days. Tang General Guo Ziyi cleverly used fires and war drums to simulate a massive approaching army, prompting the Tibetans to retreat. Subsequent decades saw frequent skirmishes along the border, but large‑scale wars were scarce. Both sides struggled to control ambitious frontier generals, leading to a series of uneasy treaties and betrayals.

Records from Dunhuang, occupied by Tibet in 786, reveal that locals were forced to wear Tibetan attire except on special occasions when traditional Chinese dress was permitted. Tibetan officials notoriously kidnapped Chinese women for marriage, a practice eventually curtailed after widespread complaints. A new bureaucratic hierarchy emerged, placing low‑ranking Tibetan officials above high‑ranking Chinese ones. The city became a hub for translation and papermaking, with Chinese scribes producing thousands of Buddhist sutras under the threat of violence and property seizure.

4 A Short‑Lived Alliance

In 779, Tang Emperor Dezong ascended a dynasty beleaguered by internal revolts and external threats. Seeking to reduce reliance on the despised Uighurs, Dezong pursued an alliance with Tibet, hoping to stabilize the southern frontier. Tibetan diplomats returned with roughly 500 captives rescued from previous missions to Chang’an. However, the same year saw a Tibet‑Nanzhao assault on the Tang southeast, which the Chinese repelled.

Negotiations eventually produced a treaty establishing a permanent border. The Tang sought military assistance against rebel Zhu Ci, while Tibet demanded an annual stipend of 10,000 bolts of silk and cession of the western territories Anxi and Beiting. When negotiations stalled, a Tang envoy forged a letter implying Tibetan acceptance. Tibetan troops then aided the Tang, playing a decisive role in defeating Zhu Ci. Yet, they withdrew before the rebels retook the capital.

Dezong, eager to meet Tibetan demands, faced opposition from his ministers, who argued that maintaining a Chinese presence in the west was strategically vital. Consequently, he offered only silver, prompting enraged Tibetans to launch a sweeping invasion of northwestern China, seizing livestock and people. The Tang responded swiftly; dwindling supplies and a Tang counter‑invasion forced Tibetan forces to withdraw. Under the pretense of peace, Tibetans ambushed Tang envoys, murdering and kidnapping many. Ultimately, the Tang turned to the Uighurs and courted Nanzhao and the Arabs, hoping to encircle and neutralize Tibet.

3 War With The Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate, succeeding the Umayyads in Central Asia, scored a decisive victory over the Tang at the 751 Battle of Talas River, aided by the Qarluq allies. Soon after, the Qarluqs embarked on their own expansion, seizing Suyab, Ferghana, and Kashgar. Turning against the Abbasids, they allied with Tibet, its vassals in Kabul, and the White‑Clad Oghuz. After Caliph al‑Rashid’s death in 808, a civil war erupted among his sons, culminating in al‑M’amun’s triumph in 813. Al‑M’amun declared a holy war against Tibet and its allies, possibly blaming them for his father’s demise and for supporting Abu Muslim rebels.

In 815, Abbasid forces captured Kabul, compelling its Turki Shahi ruler to convert to Islam and dispatch a golden Buddha statue to Mecca—a propaganda move suggesting the Tibetan ruler had embraced Islam. The statue was later melted down for coinage. Abbasids also reclaimed Ferghana from the Qarluqs and seized Gilgit from Tibet, sending a humbled Tibetan general to Baghdad as a captive.

Nevertheless, the Abbasids hesitated to press further, as local rulers in western Turkestan and eastern Iran asserted independence. While the Caliphate dealt with these internal challenges, Tibet and the Turki Shahis recaptured lost territories. Most of this conflict unfolded under Tibetan Emperor Sadnalegs, during which some Arab soldiers were captured and incorporated into Tibetan frontier garrisons, with a few possibly settling within central Tibet.

2 Reign Of Ralpacan

Emperor Ralpacan presided over the Tibetan Empire at its territorial zenith, controlling swaths of China, Nepal, India, Baltistan, Khotan, Gilgit, Zhang Zhung, and much of Gansu and Turkistan. Regarded as one of the last “dharma kings” (chos rgyal), he fortified Buddhism’s influence throughout the realm. Ralpacan also instituted administrative reforms that curbed noble power. A devout patron of Buddhism, he funded monasteries, stupas, and the translation of Sanskrit scriptures, yet remained a formidable warlord.

In 810, when the Tang emperor requested the return of three provinces, Ralpacan dispatched General Zhang ‘Bro Stag to wage war on both the Chinese and the Uighurs in the north. By 816, Zhang’s forces threatened the Uighur capital Ordu Baliq, and in 819 he assaulted the southern Chinese border city of Yanzhou. Another raid in 821 likely contributed to the first genuine peace treaty between Tibet and China, negotiated by Buddhist monks from both sides. The treaty talks convened at Gugu Meru, with stone pillars erected at Gugu Meru, Lhasa, and Chang’an, inscribing the agreement in both Tibetan and Chinese. The accord framed the Sino‑Tibetan relationship as that of “uncle and nephew.”

Despite diplomatic successes, Ralpacan’s heavy support for Buddhism alienated Bon adherents. He mandated that every seventh household support a Buddhist monk, elevating monks to a privileged class. At state functions, he famously tied long yellow ribbons in his hair, allowing monks to sit upon them. This provoked Bon supporters, who sought to replace him with his brother Lang Darma. While some accounts claim Ralpacan died of illness, others allege he was strangled by two anti‑Buddhist ministers.

1 Sectarian Violence And Imperial Collapse

Lang Darma’s brief reign marked a violent reversal of Ralpacan’s Buddhist policies and precipitated the empire’s downfall. The taxes Ralpacan imposed to sustain monasteries generated resentment among noble clans, exacerbated by successive poor harvests. Monasteries, exempt from taxation and military conscription, siphoned resources and manpower from the imperial apparatus, while the nobility’s lands gradually transferred to Buddhist abbots through gifts and inheritances.

According to one historian, Lang Darma commanded all Buddhist priests and Bon magicians to invoke every protective deity of the Land of Snows—a ritual believed to have birthed the modern Tibetan festival where oracles channel deities that feast and gamble for human souls. During the festival’s inaugural celebration, a bolt of lightning struck Samye Monastery, which Lang Darma interpreted as divine displeasure with Buddhism.

Lang Darma ordered the suppression of Buddhism: monasteries were closed, monks forced to convert or perish, temples destroyed, and foreign Buddhist teachers expelled. This systematic eradication left folk Buddhism as the surviving tradition, while Bon regained prominence. The conflict was as much political as religious; Lang Darma aimed to dismantle the monasteries’ destabilizing influence.

In 846, Lang Darma met a grisly end, assassinated by Buddhist monk Lhalhung Beigye Dorgye, who disguised himself as a Bon priest (or wore a robe black outside and white inside). After his death, a power struggle erupted between his sons Yumten and Oedsung, each backed by rival court factions. Tibet fractured into northern and southern halves, vassal states broke away, and central administration collapsed, returning the plateau to a mosaic of petty fiefdoms.

From the chaotic beginnings of fragmented tribes to a sprawling empire that dared to occupy the Tang capital, the 10 bloodthirsty struggles of the Tibetan Empire reveal a legacy of ambition, betrayal, and relentless warfare. Their story reminds us that history is rarely as tranquil as we sometimes imagine, and that even the most seemingly serene cultures can harbor fierce, war‑driven hearts.

10 dark secrets of the Ottoman Empire are revealed: For almost 400 years, the Ottoman Empire dominated Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Middle East. Founded by daring Turkic horsemen, the empire soon lost much of its original vitality, settling into a curious state of functional dysfunction that hid all kinds of dark secrets.

10 Dark Secrets Unveiled

10 Fratricide

The early Ottoman sultans didn’t practice primogeniture, where the eldest son inherits everything. As a result, various brothers sometimes claimed the throne and the early days of the empire were plagued by pretenders, who tended to take refuge in enemy states and cause trouble for years. When Mehmed the Conqueror besieged Constantinople, his own uncle fought against him from the walls.

Mehmed dealt with the problem with his customary ruthlessness. When he took the throne, he had most of his male relatives executed, including an infant brother strangled in his crib. Later, he issued his infamous law: “And to whomever of my sons the Sultanate shall pass, it is fitting that for the order of the world he shall kill his brothers. Most of the Ulema allow this. So let them act on this.”

From that point on, each new sultan had to take the throne by killing all his male relatives. Mehmed III tore out his beard with grief when his young brother begged him for mercy. But he “answered never a word,” and the boy was executed along with 18 other brothers. The sight of their 19 shrouded bodies rolling through the streets was said to have moved all Istanbul to tears. Even after the initial round of murders, the sultan’s relatives weren’t safe. Suleiman the Magnificent watched silently from a screen while his own son was strangled with a bowstring; the boy had become too popular with the army for the sultan to feel secure.

9 The Cage

The policy of fratricide was never popular with the public or the clergy, and it was quietly abandoned when Ahmed I suddenly died in 1617. Instead, potential heirs to the throne were confined in the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul in special apartments known as the kafes (“the cage”).

A prince of the Ottoman Empire might spend his whole life imprisoned in the kafes, monitored constantly by guards. The imprisonment was usually luxurious but strictly enforced, and many a prince went mad from boredom or else became debauched and dependent on alcohol. When a new sultan was taken to the Gate of Felicity to receive the allegiance of the viziers, it might be the first time he had been outside in decades, which wasn’t ideal preparation for a ruler.

The threat of execution was constant. In 1621, the Grand Mufti refused to allow Osman II to have his brother strangled. But the chief judge of the Balkans was rushed in to give a counter opinion, and the prince was strangled anyway. Osman himself was later overthrown by the military, who had to extricate his surviving brother from the kafes by pulling the roof off and hauling him out with a rope. The poor man had been two days without food or water and was probably too insane to notice that he had become sultan.

8 The Palace Was A Silent Hell

Even for the sultan, life in the Topkapi could be stifling in the extreme. It was considered unseemly for the sultan to speak too much, so a form of sign language was introduced and the ruler spent most of his day surrounded by complete silence. Mustafa I found this impossible to bear and tried to have it banned, but his viziers refused to allow it. Mustafa soon went insane and was seen throwing coins into the sea for the fish to spend.

Palace intrigue was endemic as viziers, courtiers, and eunuchs jockeyed for power. For 130 years, the women of the harem gained great influence and the period became known as “the sultanate of women.” The dragoman (chief interpreter) was always powerful and always a Greek. The eunuchs split along racial lines, and the Chief Black Eunuch and Chief White Eunuch were often fierce rivals.

Caught in the middle of this madness, the sultan was watched everywhere he went. Ahmet III wrote to his grand vizier complaining that “If I go to one of the rooms, 40 pages are lined up; if I have to put on my trousers, I do not feel the least comfort, so the sword-bearer has to dismiss them, keeping only three or four men so that I may be at ease.” Spending their days in total silence, constantly watched, in such a poisonous atmosphere, a number of the later Ottoman sultans became mentally ill.

7 Executions

The Ottoman government held the power of life and death over its subjects, and it wasn’t afraid to use it. The first court of the Topkapi Palace, where petitioners and visitors had to gather, was a terrifying place. It featured two pillars where severed heads were displayed and a special fountain solely for executioners to wash their hands. During the periodic palace purges, mounds of tongues might be piled up in the first court while a special cannon boomed every time a body was thrown into the sea.

The Ottomans didn’t bother to create a corps of executioners. Instead, the job strangely fell to the palace gardeners, who split their time between murder and creating many of the delightful flowers we know today. Most of their victims were simply beheaded. But it was forbidden to spill the blood of royalty and high-ranking officials, so they had to be strangled instead. As a result, the head gardener was always a huge, muscular man capable of choking a vizier to death at a moment’s notice.

In the early days of the empire, the sultan’s officials prided themselves on their obedience to his whims and it was customary for them to face execution with quiet grace. The famous vizier Kara Mustafa was much respected for greeting his executioner with a humble “So be it” and kneeling for the cord to loop around his neck. In later years, standards slipped. In fact, the 19th‑century governor Ali Pasha fought so hard against the sultan’s men that he had to be shot dead through the floorboards of his house.

6 The Death Race

But there was one way for a loyal official to escape the sultan’s wrath. Beginning in the late 18th century, it became the custom that a condemned grand vizier could escape his fate by beating the head gardener in a race through the palace gardens.

The official would be summoned to a meeting with the head gardener and after exchanging greetings, the vizier would be handed a cup of iced sherbet. If it was white, the sultan had granted him a reprieve. If it was red, he was to be executed. As soon as he saw the red sherbet, the vizier would start sprinting.

The vizier would sprint through the palace gardens, darting between shady cypress trees and rows of tulips, presumably watched by hidden eyes behind grated harem windows. The goal was the Fish Market Gate on the other side of the palace. If the vizier reached the gate before the head gardener, he would merely be exiled. But the head gardener was younger and stronger, and he would usually be waiting with his silk cord.

Still, a few viziers did make it, including Haci Salih Pasha, the last vizier to face a death race. He was widely congratulated and later became a provincial governor.

5 The Mob

Despite being theoretically second only to the sultan, grand viziers tended to be executed or thrown to the mob as a scapegoat whenever anything went wrong. Selim the Grim went through so many grand viziers that they began carrying a will with them at all times. One begged Selim to let him know in advance if he was to be executed, only for the sultan to cheerfully respond that he was already lining up a replacement.

The viziers also had to placate the people of Istanbul, who were prone to marching on the palace and demanding executions whenever anything went wrong. An 18th‑century British visitor observed that “when a minister here displeases the people, in three hours time he is dragged even from his master’s arms [and] they cut off his hands, head, and feet.”

Not that the people were afraid to storm the palace if their demands weren’t met. In 1730, a ragged soldier named Patrona Ali led a mob into the palace and effectively took control of the empire for several months. He was stabbed to death after trying to make a butcher who had lent him money ruler of Wallachia.

4 The Harem

Perhaps the most terrifying feature of the Topkapi palace was the Imperial Harem. This consisted of up to 2,000 women, most of them bought or abducted as slaves, who served as the sultan’s wives and concubines. They were kept cloistered deep in the seraglio, and for a man to look upon them meant instant death. The harem itself was guarded and managed by the Chief Black Eunuch, who eventually leveraged the position into one of the most powerful offices in the empire.

Conditions in the harem itself presumably varied, although little information is available about events within its walls. It was said that there were so many concubines that some might barely set eyes on the sultan. Others managed to gain influence over the running of the empire. Suleiman the Magnificent fell madly in love with a Pole called Roxelana, married her, and made her a key adviser.

Roxelana’s influence was such that a grand vizier sent the pirate Barbarossa on a desperate mission to kidnap the Italian beauty Giulia Gonzaga in the belief that she alone would be a match for Roxelana’s charms. The plan was foiled by a brave Italian, who burst into Giulia’s bedroom and got her onto a horse just before the pirates arrived. After thanking the man profusely for saving her, Giulia supposedly had him stabbed to death for seeing her in her nightgown, a deed which won her the admiration of all Italy.

Kösem Sultan achieved even more influence than Roxelana, effectively running the empire as regent for her son and grandson. But she met her match in her daughter‑in‑law Turhan, who had Kösem chased down and strangled with a curtain before taking her place as regent.

3 The Boy Tribute

One of the most notorious features of early Ottoman rule was the devshirme (“collection”), a tribute of young boys from the empire’s Christian subjects. Most of the boys were enrolled in the Janissary Corps, the army of slave‑soldiers who were at the forefront of the Ottoman conquests. The tribute was carried out irregularly whenever the empire felt it might need the manpower and usually targeted boys aged 12–14 from Greece and the Balkans.

Ottoman officials would summon all the boys in the village and check their names against the baptismal records from the local church. They would then select the strongest, perhaps taking one boy from every 40 households. The boys would then be grouped together and marched to Istanbul, with the weakest dropping dead along the way. The Ottomans produced a detailed description of each boy so that they could be tracked down if they escaped.

In Istanbul, the boys were circumcised and forcibly converted to Islam. The most handsome or intelligent were sent to the palace, where they were trained to join the imperial elite. These boys could aspire to reach the very highest ranks, and many became pashas or viziers, like the famed Croatian grand vizier Sokollu Mehmed.

The rest of the boys joined the Janissaries. First, they were sent to work on a farm for eight years, where they learned Turkish and gained strength. In their twenties, they formally became Janissaries, the elite soldiers of the empire who were subject to iron discipline and indoctrination.

There were exceptions to the tribute. It was forbidden to take a family’s only child or the children of men who had served in the military. Orphans were off‑limits for some reason as were the untrustworthy Hungarians. The citizens of Istanbul were also excluded on the grounds that they “did not have a sense of shame.” The tribute system died out in the early 18th century when the children of Janissaries were allowed to become Janissaries and the corps became self‑sustaining.

2 Slavery

Although the devshirme had died out by the 17th century, slavery remained a key feature of the Ottoman system until the end of the 19th century. As time went on, most slaves came from Africa or from the Caucasus (Circassians were particularly prized), while the Crimean Tartar raiders provided a steady flow of Russians, Ukrainians, and even Poles. Muslims couldn’t be legally enslaved, but that rule was quietly forgotten whenever supplies of non‑Muslims dried up.

In his classic Race And Slavery In The Middle East, the scholar Bernard Lewis argued that Islamic slavery developed largely independently of Western slavery and therefore had a number of key differences. For example, it was somewhat easier for Ottoman slaves to gain their freedom or attain positions of power. Ottoman apologists also like to claim that it was less racist, treating white and black slaves alike, a claim that is somewhat undercut by the writings of the actual black people who lived under Ottoman rule.

But there is no question that Ottoman slavery was an incredibly brutal system. Millions of people died in slave raids or were worked to death in the fields. That’s not even getting into the castration process used to create eunuchs. As Lewis pointed out, the Ottomans imported millions of slaves from Africa but very few people of African descent remain in modern Turkey today. That alone tells a story.

1 Massacres

On the whole, the Ottomans were a rather tolerant empire. Aside from the devshirme, they made no real attempt to convert their non‑Muslim subjects and welcomed the Jews with open arms after they were expelled from Spain. They never discriminated against their subject peoples, and the empire was practically run by Albanians and Greeks. But when the Ottomans themselves felt threatened, they could turn very ugly.

Selim the Grim, for example, was very alarmed by the Shia, who denied his authority as defender of Islam and could be double agents for Persia. As a result, he marched across the east of the empire, slaughtering at least 40,000 Shia and driving countless more from their homes. When the Greeks first began to press for independence, the Ottomans turned matters over to their Albanian irregulars, who cheerfully committed a number of terrible massacres.

As the empire declined, it lost much of its old tolerance, growing more and more vicious toward its minorities. By the 19th century, massacres were growing increasingly common. This famously reached its terrifying climax in 1915 when the empire, just two years from collapse, orchestrated the massacre of as much as 75 percent of its Armenian population. Some 1.5 million people died in the Armenian Genocide, an atrocity that Turkey still refuses to fully acknowledge.

In 1547, Grand Prince Ivan of Moscow proclaimed himself tsar of Russia, launching a saga that would later reveal the 10 dark secrets lurking beneath the glitter of empire for almost four centuries. For nearly 400 years, the tsars ruled one of the largest realms in history, stretching across endless forests and unforgiving steppes. Opaque, brutal, and often terrifying, the mighty Russian Empire concealed a trove of grim mysteries.

10 Dark Secrets Unveiled

10 The Wild East

Not long after Columbus set foot in the New World, Russian adventurers turned eastward, carving out a vast Siberian empire. The push was spearheaded by enterprising merchants such as the Stroganov family, whose insatiable appetite for furs drove them to stake claims far beyond the Ural foothills.

Their front‑line agents were fierce Cossack mercenaries, notorious for the cruelty they unleashed on indigenous peoples. When Sakha chief Dzhenik rose in rebellion, the Russians skinned him alive and then suffocated his infant son with the very hide. In 1764, Aleut islanders attacked Russian tax collectors; the retaliation was brutal—eighteen villages were razed and hundreds of Aleuts slaughtered.

Yet disease proved an even deadlier weapon. Isolated Siberian tribes, unexposed to European germs, suffered epidemics that decimated populations. In the 1600s, smallpox wiped out over half of many groups; among the Sakha and Evenk, mortality surged to at least 80 %. The Aleut population plunged from roughly 20,000 to fewer than 5,000 within two generations.

9 Torture

Russian sovereigns often turned to grotesque methods of punishment to cement their authority. Ivan the Terrible, for instance, reputedly boiled his foes alive in a massive iron skillet he commissioned himself—an act that allegedly inspired a wave of similar cruelty, as Cossacks later complained of officials roasting prisoners in gigantic pans while also “pulling out their veins.”

Empress Elizabeth delighted in having tongues torn from captives with a pair of pliers, while Peter the Great favored the knout—a savage leather whip that sliced roughly 1.3 cm (½ in) into flesh with each lash. Peter even supervised the stretching of prisoners on a rack and the searing of bodies with hot irons.

Catherine the Great, not to be outdone, ordered rebels to be hoisted by a metal hook driven through their ribs, left to die in excruciating agony. Others were strung upon floating rafts that drifted down the Volga, serving as grim warnings to any who might dissent.

8 The Court Was Brutally Violent

In theory, the Russian tsar wielded near‑absolute power, with the boyar aristocracy serving as the sole check. In practice, the imperial court resembled a snarling snake pit, where rival factions routinely resorted to bloodshed to secure dominance.

Peter the Great, as a frightened child, once cowered in a corner while armed men stormed the palace, slaughtering his mother’s relatives. Ivan the Terrible, convinced that boyars had poisoned his mother, harbored a similar paranoia from the age of eight.

Some courtiers were merely unlucky. Feodor II survived a mere seven weeks on the throne before being strangled. Peter III met his end at the hands of his own wife, who then ruled as Catherine the Great for three decades. Paul I was throttled and kicked to death in his own chambers, after which an assassin whispered to his son, “Time to grow up. Go and rule!”

It’s little wonder that many tsars grew paranoid and cruel. Peter the Great ordered his own son to be flogged to death, and Ivan the Terrible famously slew his son during a heated argument.

7 The Imprisonment Of Ivan VI

Ivan VI ascended the throne in 1740 at just two months old, only to be deposed a year later by his cousin, Empress Elizabeth. On her orders, the infant was locked away at age four and spent the next two decades in solitary confinement.

Most of his confinement took place at the remote Schlusselburg Fortress, a place so secret that few even knew his identity. His cell was windowless, leaving him forever uncertain of day or night, and guards were forbidden from speaking to him. His sole pastime was a solitary Bible.

Predictably, the isolation drove Ivan into mental instability. He remained imprisoned at Schlusselburg until 1764, when Catherine the Great, perhaps moved by pity—or political calculation—ordered his murder, ending his tragic, hidden existence.

6 The Oprichniki

After a turbulent childhood, Ivan the Terrible descended further into madness following a severe illness and the death of his wife. He turned his wrath toward the powerful boyars, assembling a cadre of mercenaries and commoners who were granted lands around Moscow.

These men became known as the Oprichniki—an ominous force clad entirely in black, brandishing severed dog heads as macabre symbols of the fate awaiting traitors. They operated as Ivan’s personal secret police, meting out torture and execution to anyone suspected of disloyalty.

In 1570, the Oprichniki swept into the historic city of Novgorod, slaughtering over 10,000 inhabitants. The devastation was so severe that Novgorod never fully recovered its former trading glory.

5 Impostors

The Russian Empire was strangely prone to impostors—charlatans claiming to be deceased members of the royal family. During the early 17th‑century Time of Troubles, at least three pretenders emerged, each asserting they were the dead son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitri.

False Dmitri I actually managed to be crowned tsar in Moscow before meeting a swift murder. His successor, False Dmitri II, essentially impersonated the first pretender, rallying a massive Cossack army that ravaged the north. The third, False Dmitri III—dubbed the “Thief of Pskov”—was eventually captured and executed in 1612.

Centuries later, the 18th‑century Cossack Pugachev sparked a massive revolt by claiming to be the slain Peter III. Another false Peter briefly ruled Montenegro for five years until Ottoman agents bribed a barber to slit his throat. At least three additional Russians also claimed to be Peter, including a founder of the radical Skoptsy sect.

4 Cults And Sects

The Russian Orthodox Church, intense and often fractious, gave rise to a multitude of sects and cults across the empire’s sprawling territory. The Khlysty were infamous for their frenzied singing and dancing, sometimes whipping themselves to an extreme degree as a visceral rejection of the physical world.

The Molokane—literally “Milk Drinkers”—refused military service and attempted to forge pacifist communes in Siberia. The Doukhobors—known as “Spirit Wrestlers”—favored their own Living Book of hymns over the traditional Bible.

Perhaps the most shocking were the Skoptsy, who deemed sexual activity the root of all sin. Their doctrine mandated ritual castration: male adherents would slice off their testicles and cauterize the wounds with a hot iron, some even severing their penises. Female members were expected to cut off their breasts or nipples, and a form of female circumcision was also practiced. The Skoptsy even castrated their own children, ensuring the sect survived only by constantly recruiting new converts. Their movement endured for over a century.

3 Self‑Immolation

The most significant religious schism erupted under Peter the Great, when Patriarch Nikon introduced reforms to align Russian Orthodoxy with broader Eastern practices. Among the changes, he mandated the three‑finger sign of the cross, replacing the traditional two‑finger gesture.

Led by Archpriest Avvakum, a group of traditionalists—known as the Old Believers—refused to accept Nikon’s reforms. They held clandestine services, crossing themselves with three fingers, and were labeled “Raskolniki” (“Splitters”) by the state. Persecution was relentless; many Old Believers grew convinced the world’s end was imminent. When they feared discovery, entire villages would convene, set their churches ablaze, and collectively immolate themselves, choosing death over forced assimilation.

2 Famines

The Russian Empire was notoriously inefficient, and its rulers often floundered when confronted with periodic, devastating famines. Even as late as 1891, the tsar attempted to suppress news of a widespread crop failure, banning newspapers from mentioning the word “famine.”

After prolonged indecision, the regime finally prohibited grain exports and launched a half‑hearted relief program, which nonetheless resulted in roughly 400,000 deaths during the 1891‑92 famine. Earlier, in 1601, a volcanic eruption in Peru triggered a series of unusually harsh winters. The ensuing famine claimed two million Russian lives—about one‑third of the population—while the tsar, preoccupied with an impending civil war, did little to intervene. Contemporary accounts recount desperate scenes: corpses found with hay in their mouths, and human flesh allegedly sold in market pies.

1 Serfdom

The Russian Empire rested upon the labor of serfs—peasants legally bound to a specific estate and compelled to work for the landowner who owned them. By the 17th century, nobles could buy, sell, and treat serfs much like chattel, rendering them virtually indistinguishable from slaves.

Although the law technically prohibited nobles from killing serfs, they were free to flog or punish them at will, with no accountability if a serf succumbed to injuries. Landowners could also conscript serfs into the army or exile them to Siberia against their will.

Serfdom persisted until its abolition in 1861. At that historic moment, Russia’s population hovered around 63 million, of which an estimated 46 million were still shackled by serfdom.

For a millennium after the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the Eastern Byzantine Empire ruled the eastern Mediterranean with iron and silk. In this sprawling chronicle we pull back the curtain on the 10 dark secrets of the empire, exposing a court riddled with murder, mutilation, intrigue, and rebellion.

Unveiling the 10 Dark Secrets of Byzantium

10 Assassinations

The Byzantine habit of treating unpopular rulers as interchangeable meant that many emperors met grisly ends. Constans II, for instance, was clubbed to death with a humble soap dish while he relaxed in his bathtub, a bizarre and brutal finale.

Michael III tried to fend off a blade with his bare hands and lost both in the process, a testament to the ferocity of palace conspiracies. Meanwhile, Nikephoros Phokas was warned of a plot and ordered a palace sweep, only to discover his own wife had hidden the assassins in their bedroom, a place no guard would dare search. They slipped in under cover of night and stabbed him to death.

Perhaps the most theatrical murder belonged to Leo the Armenian. On Christmas Day, a band of killers disguised as chanting monks stormed the Hagia Sophia. Leo fought them with a heavy cross, battling around the altar until an assassin sliced off his arm and felled him. The bloodied corpse was then tossed into a toilet, a macabre end befitting the chaotic court.

9 Mutilation

Byzantine law held that physical disfigurement barred any claimant from the throne, prompting a grim preference for mutilation over outright execution. Blinding became a common tool, as did the removal of noses and tongues, while later centuries saw castration rise to prominence.

Such cruelty was, paradoxically, sometimes framed as merciful. John IV Laskaris survived forty years after being blinded, a stark reminder that the empire’s punishments could be long‑lasting yet not instantly lethal. Empress Irene, however, proved ruthless: she ordered the blinding of her own rebellious son in the very chamber where she had given birth to him, and the boy succumbed to his injuries shortly thereafter.

Nonetheless, mutilation did not always spell permanent exile. Basil Lekapenos, castrated as a child to remove any dynastic threat, turned his disqualification into a political advantage, becoming a powerful courtier who pulled strings behind a succession of puppet emperors.

8 The Noseless Emperor

Justinian II’s first downfall came in 695 when rebels seized him, sliced off his nose, and slit his tongue before exiling him to the Crimean coast. Undeterred, he escaped to the Khazars, plotted revenge, and even strangled the Khazar assassins who had been hired to kill him.

He fled to Bulgaria in a fishing boat, forged an alliance with the Bulgarian khan, and returned to Constantinople by way of the city’s sewers. There he exacted savage vengeance on his enemies, reclaimed the throne, and ruled for another six years wearing a golden prosthetic nose while an interpreter translated his garbled speech.

His reign grew increasingly tyrannical, prompting a second overthrow in 711. This time, the conspirators did not spare him; they put an end to his life, sealing the fate of the once‑noseless emperor.

7 Intrigue

The modern adjective “Byzantine” derives from the tangled web of scheming that defined the imperial court. Eunuchs, courtiers, and favoured officials constantly vied for influence, while emperors often ruled through shadowy favorites rather than by personal authority.

One ninth‑century drama saw the eunuch Staurakios aid Empress Irene in blinding her own son, only to be supplanted by another eunuch, Aetios, who attempted to elevate his brother to the throne. Aetios’s plans were foiled when the finance minister Nikephoros orchestrated a coup, briefly seizing power before the Bulgarians turned his skull into a drinking cup.

This relentless atmosphere of back‑room plotting persisted until Constantinople’s fall. Even as Ottoman forces gathered at the walls, Grand Duke Loukas Notaras was rumored to be maneuvering to secure lucrative court posts for his offspring, proving that intrigue never truly died.

6 Civil War

The ninth‑century saw Emperor Michael I forced from power by a trio of his own generals—Leo the Armenian, Michael the Amorian, and Thomas the Slav. Leo seized the throne, but his tenure ended abruptly when Amorian loyalists infiltrated a Christmas service and hacked him to death.

Thomas the Slav ignited a massive civil war by rebelling against Michael, a conflict that sapped the empire’s strength against Arab incursions. A similar pattern repeated in the tenth century when Bardas Phokas rebelled, only to be crushed by General Bardas Skleros. The eunuch Basil Lekapenos, fearing for his safety, launched his own uprising, prompting Phokas’s release from prison to command forces against Skleros.

Phokas triumphed over Skleros in single combat, but the three—Phokas, Skleros, and Lekapenos—later united against the young Basil the Bulgar‑Slayer. Their infighting ultimately fell apart, allowing Basil to secure power, later becoming infamous for blinding thousands of prisoners and sending them back to Bulgaria, where Tsar Samuel reportedly died of sheer horror.

5 The Purple‑Born

In Byzantine culture, purple was the imperial hue, reserved for the royal family. The emperor even commissioned a special chamber whose walls were sheathed in porphyry, a rare purple stone, to birth children of supreme prestige.

Those born within this chamber earned the title porphyrogennetos, meaning “purple‑born.” Their status carried immense weight; they were expected to marry only within the empire. Yet Vladimir of Kiev famously demanded a purple‑born bride as payment for military assistance and his eventual conversion to Christianity.

The public adored the Purple‑Born, bestowing them with unwavering loyalty. Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, overthrown as a child, retained his co‑emperor position for twenty‑four years thanks to his birthright. When Basil II died, the surviving Purple‑Born sisters Zoe and Theodora faced repeated attempts at removal, but popular uprisings kept them in power until Theodora’s death in 1056.

4 Riots

The citizens of Constantinople were not shy about making their voices heard—often with fists and swords. The most famous unrest erupted when supporters of the Blue and Green chariot racing factions united to revolt against Emperor Justinian I.

Justinian prepared to flee, but his wife Theodora famously declared she would rather die an empress than live as a commoner, rallying the troops to crush the rebels in a bloody massacre.

Riots were not always purely political. During a later civil war, a prison uprising proved decisive: Megaduke Alexios Apokaukos inspected his newly built jail when the inmates broke free, slaughtering him and crippling his faction.

3 Castration

Eunuchs occupied every niche of Byzantine society, serving as courtiers, priests, and even generals. Their perceived lack of ambition—stemming from the inability to sire heirs—made them ideal candidates for high‑ranking, non‑threatening positions.

Yet some eunuchs amassed terrifying power. John the Orphanotrophos, who managed Constantinople’s orphanage, leveraged his brothers into prominent offices. His influence grew so extreme that an anxious emperor ordered the entire Orphanotrophos family to be castrated and exiled.

Castration was technically illegal, prompting a shadow market where boys were kidnapped from abroad and castrated just before crossing the empire’s borders. In desperate times, impoverished Byzantine families sometimes chose to castrate their own sons, hoping they would secure lucrative court appointments.

2 Sex Slaves

Contemporary sources allege that eunuchs were often exploited as sex slaves, prized for their youthful appearance. Though officially forbidden, the church struggled to eradicate the practice without condemning slavery itself, which underpinned the empire’s economic structure.

The 10th‑century “Life of St. Andrew the Fool” places blame squarely on eunuchs, describing how slaves who disobeyed were brutally beaten. Yet the text also argues that those who resisted the “abominable passions” of their masters were “thrice blessed,” and would be counted among martyrs for their suffering.

This paradox highlights the moral contradictions of a society that simultaneously relied on and condemned the exploitation of its own servants.

1 The Zealots Of Thessalonica

In 1341, the empire was once again embroiled in a civil war. A nine‑year‑old emperor reigned under the regency of his friend John Kantakouzenos, while the boy’s mother Anna and Megaduke Alexios Apokaukos formed an alliance to usurp the regency, sparking a massive conflict.

This time, the city of Thessalonica saw an unprecedented popular uprising. The common folk seized control from the aristocracy, forming a revolutionary group known as the “Zealots.” They proclaimed themselves champions of the poor, and contemporary accounts describe them violently slaughtering the wealthy elite.

The Zealot council governed Thessalonica throughout the civil war, at times pledging allegiance to Apokaukos but remaining hostile to the aristocracy. Eventually they asserted full independence by murdering Apokaukos’s son. The revolt was finally crushed when John Kantakouzenos became emperor, with some Zealots even inviting the Serbian king Stefan Dusan to take the city, while others resisted, leading to internal fighting before Kantakouzenos retook Thessalonica and executed the movement’s leaders.

The saga of the Roman Empire’s slow‑motion collapse is a perennial favorite for history buffs. The very fact that a civilization as mighty as Rome could crumble serves as a stark reminder to any power that finds itself perched atop the world stage. While many point to the accession of Commodus in AD 180 as the opening act, the real fatal flaws had been festering long before. In this countdown we’ll walk through the ten dying symptoms that together spelled the end for the mighty empire.

10 Unclear Succession System

Augustus, the empire’s inaugural ruler, never managed to lock down a clean‑cut line of inheritance. The result? Whenever a throne needed a new occupant, a crowd of ambitious claimants surged forward, each hoping to outmaneuver the others.

Some aspirants even had a vested interest in hastening the incumbent’s demise so they could swoop in and claim the purple for themselves. This ruthless jockeying helped cement a long‑standing pattern of assassination plots that peppered the imperial timeline.

The succession machinery proved fragile and volatile. In the first two centuries of imperial rule, only Titus (r. AD 79‑81) succeeded his own father, Vespasian. It wasn’t until Commodus in AD 161 that a sitting emperor actually fathered his successor, Marcus Aurelius, marking a rare instance of hereditary transfer.

9 Currency Debasening

When Emperor Nero ran into a fiscal crunch, he opted for a classic short‑term fix: diluting the coinage. By trimming the precious metal content of the denarius, Nero hoped the public would still accept the coins at face value, even as their intrinsic worth slipped away.

This practice didn’t stay confined to Nero’s reign. Subsequent emperors followed suit, steadily eroding the silver purity of the empire’s backbone money. Under Nero the denarius boasted roughly 91.8 % silver; by the time Marcus Aurelius ruled, it had fallen to about 76.2 %; and by Septimius Severus’s era the metal content dwindled further to roughly 58.3 %.

The relentless debasening set the stage for a cascade of economic woes, as each successive emperor leaned harder on the same trick, eroding confidence in Rome’s currency with every tweak.

8 Inflation

With the coinage increasingly stripped of value, inflation surged through the empire. By AD 301, Emperor Diocletian felt compelled to issue his famous Edict on Prices, a desperate attempt to clamp down on spiralling costs. Yet even that sweeping decree barely dented the problem.

Price hikes were dramatic: wheat in Roman Egypt, which sold for six drachmas in the first century AD, ballooned to 200 drachmas by AD 276. By AD 324 the same staple fetched a staggering 78,000 drachmas, and by AD 334 it had exploded to over two million drachmas. Even basic pork, priced at 12 denarii under the edict, cost a jaw‑dropping 90 denarii by AD 412.

One side effect of this runaway inflation was a rush to hoard the few “good” coins that still retained precious metal. Archaeologists have uncovered countless hoards from the late empire, a silent testament to the public’s mistrust of the debased money.

7 The Year Of The Four Emperors

The period AD 68‑69 earned the dramatic moniker “The Year of the Four Emperors,” a grim prelude to the endless power struggles that would later plague the empire. After Nero’s death in June 68, three short‑lived rulers scrambled for the throne.

Galba ruled a mere seven months before meeting assassination; Otho lasted three months before taking his own life; and Vitellius survived eight months only to be slain. Finally, Vespasian emerged victorious in AD 69, ushering in a brief period of stability.

The chaos of that year is captured vividly by the historian Tacitus, who wrote, “The history on which I am entering is that of a period rich in disasters, terrible with battles, torn by civil struggles, horrible even in peace and four emperors killed by the sword.”

6 Army’s Diminishing Returns

In the Republic and early Empire, the Roman legions thrived on the spoils of conquest. Each new province supplied fresh land, slaves, taxpayers, and treasure, effectively financing the military’s appetite for glory.

Once the empire reached its territorial zenith, the army’s role flipped to largely defensive duties. No longer could soldiers count on plunder to line their pockets; instead, the state had to fund them through taxation alone.

Ironically, this once‑glorious instrument of expansion became a financial drain. The ever‑growing tax burden to sustain the legions pushed many middle‑class Romans into poverty, eroding the very social fabric that had underpinned Rome’s ascent.

5 Barbarian Pressure

For years, scholars pointed to barbarian invasions as the chief culprit behind Rome’s downfall. While the pressure from external tribes certainly mattered, it was only one piece of a larger puzzle.

Repeated waves of Germanic and other “barbarian” armies battered both the northern and eastern frontiers, gradually eroding the empire’s size. Britain fell in AD 406 when legions were recalled to defend the mainland against the Huns, and the Visigoths sacked Rome in AD 410 under Alaric’s command.

By AD 455, the Vandals seized Spain and North Africa, even pillaging Rome again that same year. What set this era apart was the stark incompetence of the Roman army, which could no longer repel invaders as it had so often done in earlier centuries.

4 Praetorian Guard Corruption

The Praetorian Guard began as an elite cohort tasked with protecting the emperor, but over time they grew into kingmakers, often backing candidates who promised them favors.

Their influence swelled to the point where they could literally install or eliminate emperors at will. In many instances, the Guard turned on the very ruler they were meant to protect, sealing his fate with a swift sword.

A particularly egregious practice was the “donative,” a hefty cash reward paid to the Guard by would‑be emperors. Pretenders would promise generous donatives to win the Guard’s loyalty, effectively buying the throne.

By the third century, no emperor could hope to govern without the explicit backing of the military, especially the Praetorian Guard. Their meddling turned succession into a chaotic, blood‑stained affair, with many rulers meeting their end at the hands of their own bodyguards eager for a payout.

3 Concentration Of Wealth

While the Roman Empire often conjures images of grandeur, it was also a society riddled with severe inequality. Agriculture formed the backbone of the economy, yet over 90 % of the late‑imperial population lived as rural paupers, scraping by on precarious livelihoods.

This disparity created a stark urban‑rural divide. Cities were often viewed as “predators” that extracted labor from the countryside, exhausting the land and deepening the plight of the peasantry. Osteological studies of Roman skeletons reveal widespread malnutrition, underscoring the grim health conditions of the majority.

The concentration of wealth in the hands of a privileged few not only strained social cohesion but also left the empire vulnerable to internal decay, as the majority of citizens bore the brunt of fiscal and food shortages.

2 Size Of The Empire

The sheer expanse of Rome’s dominion bred a host of logistical nightmares. Journeys across the empire could take weeks, and the massive borders demanded an enormous standing army to guard them.

Ultimately, the empire became too vast to be effectively ruled from a single capital. Emperor Diocletian responded by splitting the realm into a Western half, centered on Rome, and an Eastern half, with Byzantium (later Constantinople) as its seat.

This division highlighted the limits of territorial overreach. Scholars still debate how the sheer scale of Rome contributed to its vulnerability, offering lessons on the challenges of governing sprawling polities.

1 Romulus Augustulus Deposition

On September 4, AD 476, the final Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer, a veteran of the Roman army who had risen to the rank of general.

While the removal of an emperor by a military leader was not unprecedented, this event was unique: no successor was appointed, and Odoacer crowned himself king of Italy, marking a definitive end to the Western imperial line.

By this point, the Western Empire was a shadow of its former self. The capital had already shifted from Rome to Ravenna, and the once‑vast western territories had fragmented into smaller kingdoms and city‑states. The Eastern Roman Empire, however, clung on, preserving imperial traditions until its ultimate fall in 1453.

Why These 10 Dying Symptoms Matter

The phrase “10 dying symptoms” perfectly captures the cascade of internal failures that accelerated Rome’s demise. From a shaky succession plan to runaway inflation, each symptom acted like a wound that never healed, collectively ensuring the empire’s eventual collapse.

In the 13th century, the Mongols burst forth from their remote steppes, forging one of history’s most formidable empires. While they’re often remembered as fierce horse‑archers, the ruling clan amassed unimaginable wealth and power, moving from humble felt tents to the grand capital of Karakorum. Beneath the glittering façade lay a trove of unsettling practices – the very 10 dark secrets that scarred their legacy.

10 Dark Secrets Of The Mongol Empire

10 Murder

Genghis Khan’s first act of killing came at the tender age of fourteen. The near‑contemporary chronicle known as The Secret History of the Mongols recounts that young Temujin was repeatedly tormented by his half‑brother Begter. When Begter pilfered food, Temujin and his younger sibling Qasar slipped through the tall grass, ambushed Begter, and riddled him with arrows.

That early episode set a chilling pattern: Genghis treated murder as a convenient problem‑solver. Numerous opponents met sudden, mysterious ends. One especially petty case involved the celebrated wrestler Buri, who had dared to humiliate Genghis’s brother Belgutei in a match before the Khan’s rise.

According to The Secret History, after Temujin became Genghis Khan, he summoned Buri for a rematch. Scared of the Khan’s power, Buri opted for the “safe” route, allowing Belgutei to throw and pin him. Yet, at Genghis’s silent signal, Belgutei drove his knee into Buri’s back and yanked his collarbone, snapping the wrestler’s spine. The crippled Buri was dragged outside and left to die, likely pondering the folly of challenging a ruler who despised cowardice.

9 Executions

Even though Genghis Khan limited torture, the Mongols still employed brutally graphic execution methods. When Guyuk Khan suspected the influential courtier Fatima of poisoning his brother, he ordered her to be sewn shut at both upper and lower orifices, wrapped in felt, and hurled into a river.

The Mongol tradition tabooed shedding the blood of royalty, prompting a preference for crushing. The Abbasid Caliph al‑Musta’sim was bound in a carpet and trampled by stampeding horses. After the Battle of the Kalka River, captured Russian princes were shoved beneath floorboards, then crushed while Mongols feasted atop the victims.

Genghis himself commanded a captured Tangut ruler to be renamed Shidurqu (“Loyal”) before crushing him, ensuring his spirit would serve the Mongols in the afterlife. By contrast, a Persian noble was covered in sheep fat, wrapped in felt, and left to bake in the scorching sun, meeting a far harsher fate.

8 Intrigue

Contrary to the stereotype of blunt, uncomplicated warriors, the Mongol court was a veritable snake pit of scheming factions. One of the earliest, most serious incidents involved the shaman Teb Tengri, who tried to supplant the Khan’s brothers as the dominant power.

Teb Tengri first targeted the Khan’s brother Qasar, claiming a prophetic vision that Qasar intended to seize power. Genghis ordered Qasar’s arrest, seemingly preparing a death sentence.

The day was rescued by Genghis’s mother, Hoelun. Upon hearing of Qasar’s detention, she raced to the Khan’s tent, tore off her coat, and demanded that her sons recognize the breasts that had fed them. She berated Genghis until he, ashamed, released his brother. Teb Tengri waited until Hoelun’s death, then stole the inheritance meant for her youngest son, Temuge. When Temuge protested, Teb’s brothers beat him and forced him to kneel, begging for his life.

Later, Genghis’s wife Borte intervened, warning that the shaman might someday move against the Khan. In response, Genghis staged a wrestling match in which Teb Tengri’s back was broken, leaving the paralyzed shaman outside to die.

7 Sex Slavery

Although many Mongol women rose to positions of power, the empire was far from feminist. Women captured during campaigns were either married off to Mongol men or consigned to concubinage. The Mongols also routinely demanded young maidens as tribute from subjugated peoples.

A notable example involves the Siberian queen Botohui‑tarhun (“Big And Fierce”), who once outwitted a Mongol army by luring General … into an ambush. After a later expedition defeated the Siberians, Botohui‑tarhun was captured, married to a Mongol soldier, and vanished from the historical record.

Some noblewomen turned tragedy into influence. When Genghis conquered the Merkids, he gave their princess Toregene to his son Ogedei. She soon eclipsed Ogedei’s other wives, ruling the empire for five years after his death.

6 Alcoholism

Originally pastoral herders, the early Mongols had limited access to intoxicants, mostly drinking mildly alcoholic fermented mare’s milk, which was seasonal. After Genghis’s conquests flooded the steppes with wealth, many Mongols found themselves living in leisure, with unlimited access to wine and distilled spirits.

By the time of Genghis’s death, alcoholism was already a massive problem. Even his own family wasn’t immune: two of his sons, Tolui and Ogedei, drank themselves to death. His brother Chagatai had to enforce strict limits, allowing only a few cups a day.

Ogedei, who succeeded Genghis, was especially dependent on wine; Persian historian Ata‑Malek Juvayni reports that he often made critical decisions while heavily intoxicated. His minister, Yelu Chucai, repeatedly urged the Khan to curb his drinking, but Ogedei’s wife Toregene encouraged his bingeing so she could seize power.

The problem persisted beyond Genghis’s sons. European monk William of Rubruck, visiting his grandson Mongke’s court, described a pervasive drinking culture, including a silver tree that dispensed wine, rice wine, mead, and fermented mare’s milk through four pipes.

5 The Kidnapping That Helped Create And Destroy The Empire

Around 1178, newly‑wed Borte was seized by Merkid tribesmen. Her furious husband, Temujin, quickly rallied a modest coalition, stormed the Merkid camp, rescued Borte, and cemented his reputation as a fierce warrior. This episode arguably set him on the path to becoming Genghis Khan.

Paradoxically, the same kidnapping sowed seeds of destruction. By the time Borte was rescued, she was months pregnant, and rumors swirled about whether the child’s father was her husband or one of her captors. Genghis accepted the child as his, yet whispers lingered.

Years later, an aging Genghis convened his sons to name a successor. The obvious heir was his eldest, Jochi, but his second son, Chagatai, argued that a “bastard son of a Merkid” should not inherit. The meeting devolved into a chaotic brawl. Despite Genghis’s pleas, the brothers refused reconciliation, forcing a compromise: the throne passed to the third son, the alcoholic Ogedei. This decision set the stage for prolonged infighting that eventually fractured the empire.

4 The Purge

Genghis ensured his son Ogedei would ascend without opposition. Trouble erupted after Ogedei died in 1241, his alcoholism leaving a power vacuum that spiraled into a ruthless purge targeting the descendants of two of Genghis’s four sons.

Initially, Ogedei’s wife Toregene seized power, ruling for five years while scheming to have her wasteful son Guyuk elected Khan. She succeeded after a series of intrigues, including the execution of Genghis’s surviving brother Temuge. Yet Guyuk turned on her once she tried to retain authority; her advisers were executed, and the queen died under mysterious circumstances.

Guyuk’s abrupt death two years later plunged the empire back into chaos. Jochi’s and Tolui’s descendants allied to elevate Tolui’s son Mongke. Opposed by the Chagataids and Ogedeids—who allegedly plotted to assassinate Mongke—Mongke responded with a massive purge.

He ordered the roundup and execution of Ogedei’s and Guyuk’s ministers. An army formation swept across Mongolia, hunting down Ogedeid princes for execution. Special tribunals, called jarghus, traveled the empire conducting show trials of Ogedeid loyalists. The Ogedeids and Chagataids required years to recover, while the Toluids solidified their grip.

3 Civil War

The first Mongol civil war nearly ignited during Guyuk’s brief reign. At a Russian banquet, Guyuk engaged in a foolish quarrel with Jochi’s son Batu, ending with Guyuk shouting that Batu “was just an old woman.” The rivalry intensified, and Batu refused to travel to Mongolia to pay homage.

In retaliation, Guyuk marched his army toward Batu’s Russian territories. Fortune intervened: Guyuk died en route, averting outright war.

Later, after Mongke’s death, his brothers Kublai Khan and Ariq Boke ripped the empire apart in a massive civil war to decide succession. The turmoil allowed the Ogedei and Chagatai clans to rebound, while the Jochi and Hulagu branches broke away, forming the independent Golden Horde and Ilkhanate. The once‑unified Mongol Empire never fully reassembled.

2 Religious Fanaticism

Although famed for religious tolerance, the Mongol ruling elite fervently believed they were on a divine mission that justified ruthless conquest. In 1218, Genghis ascended a mosque pulpit in Bukhara and warned citizens: “You have committed great sins. If you had not, God would not have sent a punishment like me upon you.”

Years later, his grandson Guyuk wrote to Pope Innocent IV, proclaiming: “By the power of eternal Heaven, all lands have been given to us from sunrise to sunset. If you defy Heaven’s commands, we shall know you are our foe.”

Another grandson, Mongke Khan, boasted to King Louis of France: “In Heaven there is only one eternal God, and on Earth there is only one lord, Genghis Khan. When, by the virtue of the eternal God, the world enjoys universal joy and peace, our destiny will be manifest.”

Hulagu Khan summed it up in a letter: “God spoke to our grandfather through Teb Tengri, saying ‘I have set thee over the nations to build, to plant, to destroy. Those who do not believe will later learn punishment.’”

1 The Plan To Exterminate The Chinese

The Mongols felt most at home on open steppes, where endless grass fed their horses. Before launching a campaign, they often dispatched small detachments to torch farms, orchards, and villages, allowing the land to revert to pasture by the time the main army arrived.

Frustrated by the difficulty of subduing the densely populated Chinese heartland, Ogedei Khan contemplated a terrifying expansion of this scorched‑earth method: the wholesale slaughter of northern Chinese peasants and conversion of the former Jin dynasty’s territory into a massive pasture.

This genocidal scheme was averted largely thanks to Ogedei’s Chinese adviser, Yelu Chucai. He argued that a taxation system would yield a steady revenue stream to fund Mongol conquests, a far more sustainable approach. Ogedei listened, and the plan to ethnically cleanse northern China never materialized.

The Inca Empire flourished from the mid‑1430s until its fall in 1572 at the hands of Francisco Pizarro. Spanning most of modern‑day Peru, Chile, Ecuador, and parts of southern Colombia, life in this civilization was anything but ordinary—especially for children who somehow survived the staggering 25 % mortality rate before turning five. Below are ten truly bizarre aspects of an Inca youngster’s upbringing.

10 Crazy Ways Kids Lived in the Inca Empire

10 The Ceremony That Killed Children

Indeed, the Incas performed child sacrifices, a practice that defined how some youngsters met their end rather than how they lived. The ritual, known as capacocha, was reserved for momentous occasions such as the death of a ruler or a major military triumph. Paradoxically, being selected for this rite was considered an honor for the child’s family, as the offering was carried to the highest Peruvian peaks. These sacrifices were also made to appease deities in hopes of averting droughts, epidemics, and other calamities.

Prior to the ascent, the chosen youngsters were escorted to Cuzco, the empire’s capital, where a massive communal feast was held. After the celebration, the children were taken up the mountain for the final offering. While the ceremony did not discriminate by gender, archaeological discoveries have revealed that most of the recovered mummies are female.

During the journey, each child was given a mixture of alcohol and poison, inducing vomiting and a slow, painful death that could extend over weeks or even months of travel. In some cases, extreme dehydration caused the child to freeze to death before the poison took effect; other instances involved suffocation or a fatal blow to the head.

9 The Incas Were Ageists

The quipu—those knot‑filled cords you may have seen in pictures—served as the Inca’s data‑keeping system. Although scholars still struggle to decode its exact meaning, it does reveal a stark age hierarchy. Roughly twice a year, officials conducted a census, slotting every individual into one of ten distinct classes based on age.

Adults aged 25‑50 were deemed the most valuable, occupying the highest tier of the empire’s economy. They were counted first and afforded the greatest respect. Next in line were those aged 60‑70, followed by youths of 18‑20, children of 10‑17, then the 5‑9 age group, toddlers, and finally infants. This ordering underscores how little importance was placed on the youngest members of society.

Such a system dovetailed with the grim reality that the Incas also practiced child sacrifice. Historical accounts suggest that elders often beat children harshly until they surpassed nine years old, presumably to instill discipline deemed necessary for survival in this harsh environment.

8 Learning Advanced Skills As A Little Kid

Even before reaching double‑digits, Inca children—especially girls—were already mastering sophisticated crafts. By the age of five, many girls could spin yarn from llama and alpaca fleece, a skill captured in Spanish sketches of the period. They also learned the art of brewing chicha, a traditional fermented beverage.

While they were taught these valuable abilities, consumption of alcohol, sugary, or fatty foods was strictly forbidden for youngsters; a healthy physique was essential for future marital prospects. Teenage boys tended to herd llamas, whereas younger boys practiced trapping birds and raising guinea pigs, a staple protein source.

Girls were expected to be obedient and were kept away from men until arranged marriages were organized. Early Spanish observers noted that these girls often cut their hair short and went barefoot, appearing far from the European ideals of femininity. Their entire upbringing centered on preparing for marriage, household management, and family care.

7 Sick Kids Had To Sit In Pee

When a child fell ill, Inca healers turned to unconventional remedies. One belief held that a preserved umbilical cord could absorb malevolent forces; the ailing child would suck on this cord, thought to draw out the evil. The exact method of preserving the cord remains unclear, but it was likely kept chilled in mountain streams, much like Egyptian mummification practices.

Feverish children faced an even stranger cure: immersion in a massive tub filled entirely with the family’s urine. Contemporary accounts claim that this bizarre bath was believed to draw out the fever and restore health, a practice that would horrify modern sensibilities.

6 The Babies And Toddlers Were Treated More Like Things

Spanish missionaries recorded a chilling childcare routine: mothers would regularly bathe newborns in icy mountain streams for days on end, fearing that excessive affection would make infants overly clingy. This cold‑water regimen was thought to toughen the babies and keep them from becoming demanding.

Infants didn’t receive a name or formal family status until they turned two, a delay likely due to the alarmingly high infant mortality rate of 15th‑century Peru. Even after two years, the child’s first haircut ceremony—called rutuchicoy—was a public event where relatives gathered to witness the hair being trimmed for the first time.

During those early years, mothers fashioned a simple sling that draped over their backs, allowing the baby to ride along while the mother gathered herbs or performed other chores. This practical arrangement kept the child close yet minimized direct contact.

5 Schooling Was Surprisingly Not Sexist (Sort Of)

Around the ages of eight or nine, Inca youngsters left their homes to attend specialized schools. Although curricula differed between genders, both boys and girls received comparable levels of instruction.

Boys were taught Quechua, the empire’s lingua franca, and received training in religious rites and history. Girls, meanwhile, mastered brewing chicha, cooking, and religious customs—skills deemed essential for daily life.

Only the most attractive girls were chosen for the elite aqllakuna houses, where they could become priestesses or high‑status wives. The Sapa Inca, the supreme ruler, famously maintained a harem of numerous wives. Regardless of status, boys were prepared for roles as warriors, hunters, or farmers, though attendance at these schools was a privilege reserved for wealthier families.

4 Changing Clothes Was Important If You Were A Kid

At roughly fourteen, boys shed their humble garments for a ceremonial loincloth, signaling their transition into manhood. This shift was tied to the fact that teens were expected to marry during their teenage years.

Simultaneously, young men began inserting large ear plugs, gradually enlarging them over the years to achieve the impressive stretched earlobes that signified status. They also started carrying small pouches—akin to modern‑day purses—filled with coca leaves, which they chewed for luck and stamina.

Girls, by contrast, received fewer accessories; they wore longer dresses while boys donned tunics. A notable fact: the Sapa Inca would wear a brand‑new outfit only once before it was burned, whereas other nobles kept multiple garments for repeated use, reflecting the empire’s mastery of textile production.

3 Kids Wouldn’t Have Normal‑Shaped Skulls

From infancy, Inca parents bound their children’s heads to reshape them into elongated, cone‑like forms. Because a baby’s skull is pliable, this practice could easily produce the desired silhouette.

The motivation behind this cranial deformation was spiritual: a higher head was thought to elevate the mind and bring the wearer closer to the gods. Similar customs persisted among the Maya and other ancient peoples.

Archaeologists have also uncovered perforations in several Inca skulls, suggesting that deliberate holes were drilled to relieve swelling after violent club fights. This evidence points to a cultural acceptance of head injuries and their management.

2 Kids Were Probably Introduced To Sex And Marriage Too Young

Pottery and statues depicting sexual positions reveal that the Incas embraced a broad spectrum of sexual activity. It was customary for youths to engage in sexual relations before formal marriage, and many had multiple lovers prior to settling down. Homosexual encounters were also documented on ceramic artwork.

Despite this apparent openness, chosen women—known as aqllakuna—were expected to remain chaste until marriage. Given that girls typically wed between twelve and fourteen, it is likely that most experienced sexual activity well before their official unions.

The Inca social structure recognized three gender categories: straight men, straight women, and a third group encompassing transgender and homosexual individuals, called Tinkuy. This inclusive framework allowed young homosexual children to exist without concealment.

1 Marriage Was More Of A Business Trial

While men typically married in their late teens to mid‑twenties, women were often wed as early as twelve to fifteen. These unions functioned more as contractual agreements between families than romantic ceremonies, though a feast usually marked the occasion.

Each year, village leaders assembled all eligible youths and paired them off in arranged marriages. If two suitors vied for the same girl, the families presented arguments to the leader, who made the final decision.

Lower‑status men could only take one wife, but the marriage included a trial period of several years. Should the bride be dissatisfied, she could return to her natal family; likewise, a husband could send his wife back if unhappy. Typically, the bride moved into a home built by her husband’s family.

These arrangements underscore how marriage in the Inca world was a strategic, economic partnership rather than a purely personal choice.

When you hear “10 ways roman” you probably picture gladiators, togas, and endless conquests. By today’s yardstick, everyday life in ancient Rome had its share of hardships: slavery was endemic, medical knowledge was rudimentary, and the only reliable path to a decent old‑age for a pauper was a two‑decade stint in the legions. Yet, despite those grim realities, the Roman world managed to roll out a suite of public services that were startlingly forward‑thinking for their era.

10 Ways Roman Innovations Shaped Public Welfare

10 Free Food

During the early imperial boom, Rome’s population exploded, while wealthy landowners snapped up the surrounding farmland, nudging impoverished farmers into the city’s cramped streets. This migration swelled a class of job‑scarce laborers who struggled to secure regular wages.

To alleviate the pressure, the tribune Gaius Gracchus introduced a grain law in 123 BC, offering a half‑price grain dole each month to anyone willing to stand in line. This early welfare measure persisted for six centuries, providing a safety net for the city’s poorest.

Later emperors Julius and Augustus revamped the scheme, converting it into a fully free grain distribution reserved for roughly 200,000 of Rome’s most indigent citizens, identified through a state‑run test. By AD 270, Emperor Aurelian swapped grain for fresh bread and added regular handouts of pork, oil, and salt. The program survived until the empire’s collapse in the fifth century.

9 Military Pensions

Throughout Roman history, legionaries earned a retirement benefit after completing their service—16 years for the elite Praetorians and 20 years for ordinary soldiers. Early on, this pension came in the form of land, often on volatile frontiers or publicly owned parcels that were either rented out or temporarily occupied by other tenants. These arrangements rarely satisfied veterans and frequently sparked disputes over ownership.

In AD 6, Augustus overhauled the system, replacing land grants with a cash payout of 12,000 sesterces, accompanied by a bronze plaque commemorating the soldier’s honorably concluded service. This sum equated to roughly twelve years of a legionary’s wages, easily enough to purchase a modest property with surplus cash.

To fund the new pension plan, Augustus injected 170 million sesterces from the imperial treasury and sustained it with a 5 % inheritance tax and a 1 % levy on auctioned goods. Though the elite grumbled about the fiscal burden, the reform tethered veterans to the emperor’s generosity and ensured that any soldier, regardless of birth, could retire with genuine wealth.

8 Free Entertainment

In today’s world we’re accustomed to buying tickets for stadiums, cinemas, or concerts to keep the shows afloat. In Roman times, however, admission to gladiatorial bouts, theatrical productions, and chariot races was virtually always free of charge.

These spectacles were financed by affluent patrons eager to curry favor with the masses. Most of these benefactors were ambitious politicians using lavish games to win popular support. Occasionally, they even financed the construction of grand public venues, the most iconic example being Vespasian’s building of the Flavian Amphitheatre—later known as the Colosseum—on the site of Nero’s former palace.

Patrons who funded the events earned the right to host them, which meant they could decide a gladiator’s fate at the end of a bout and deliver speeches (or appoint speakers) during intermissions. Crucially, regardless of a citizen’s wealth, the doors were open for free attendance.

7 Fire And Police Force

In 7 BC, Emperor Augustus re‑organized Rome by carving the city into fourteen districts, each overseen by officials tasked with maintaining order, overseeing housing, and tackling emergencies such as fires.

Ancient metropolises were tinderboxes, and massive conflagrations could devastate swathes of the urban landscape. After a particularly disastrous blaze in AD 6, Augustus founded the vigiles—a corps of seven cohorts, each comprising a thousand men, to serve as both fire‑fighters and night‑time police.

The vigiles operated much like modern emergency services, living in barracks and patrolling two districts each. Equipped with buckets, hooks, portable water pumps, axes, and even a chemical known as acetum for dousing flames, they also fielded a horse‑drawn fire‑engine with a double‑action pump. Their duties extended to policing, tracking runaway slaves, and preserving public safety around the clock.

6 Free Baths

Roman bathhouses functioned much like today’s community centers, and entry was generally free—except for a modest two‑bronze‑penny fee during Diocletian’s reign, which was waived on public and religious holidays. These facilities offered a swimming pool, sauna, exercise rooms, changing areas, massage chambers, and even reading nooks, mirroring many modern gym amenities.

Bathhouses served as bustling social hubs where friends gathered, politicians delivered speeches, and pickpockets prowled. Archaeologists have found notches in the walls that appear to have held scrolls, suggesting that patrons could peruse literature while soaking. Adjacent taverns and food stalls meant a typical afternoon could include a swim, a snack, and a chat—all for a pittance.

While the public baths were famously crowded and sometimes unsanitary, wealthier Romans built private facilities for exclusive use, keeping the communal experience tidy for those who could afford it.

5 Insulae: Social Housing

The Regionary Catalogue, a Roman administrative record, notes the existence of 44,850 insulae and 1,781 domus in the city by AD 315. While a domus housed a single family, an insula was a multi‑storey block of communal apartments rented to tenants. Some insulae were privately constructed, but evidence suggests the state also funded or at least regulated many of them to accommodate the capital’s swelling populace.

These apartment blocks resembled modern mixed‑use developments: ground‑floor shops or workshops, and upper floors containing one‑ to four‑room apartments accessed via a central staircase. Many featured balconies, and while the Senate capped building heights at five stories, some structures pushed the limit to eight floors.

Although Roman insulae did not provide luxury accommodations, they represented an early, large‑scale approach to urban housing. By the late empire, they were even erected from a primitive form of concrete, showing a level of engineering and governmental oversight not seen again in Europe until the post‑medieval era.

4 Free Water And Toilets

Ancient Rome boasted public latrines that were free to use, though they bore little resemblance to modern bathrooms. These facilities consisted of a single chamber with rows of seats that emptied into sewers or pits, and privacy was non‑existent. Users shared a communal sponge on a stick for cleaning—hardly the sanitary standards we expect today—but the latrines were supplied with running water sourced from the city’s aqueducts.

Equally impressive was Rome’s provision of free, fresh water through an extensive network of public fountains. Frontinus, in his treatise De Aquaductu, recorded that nine aqueducts fed 591 fountains, each capable of supplying enough water for roughly 900 citizens. In many towns, a public water point lay within 46 meters (150 feet) of a resident’s home—a ratio that outstrips many contemporary cities.

3 Free Health Care/Subsidized Doctors

In ancient Greece, medical care was largely a private affair, with wealthy individuals hiring physicians and the poor relying on home remedies. Rome, however, began to shift this paradigm during the Republic.

The first public hospital emerged in 293 BC on Tiber Island, financed by the Senate. Though hospitals were scarce across the empire, those that existed were free to the public and sustained through municipal funds, occasional donations, and the generosity of affluent patrons.

Private doctors—known as clinici—often held salaried positions within the state. Their fees were tiered according to a patient’s wealth, making basic diagnosis and prescription affordable for the indigent, though comprehensive treatment rarely came without charge.

2 Collegia: Social Clubs

During the Roman Republic, any trio of free citizens could establish a collegium—a sort of guild or social club. These assemblies pooled resources to provide mutual aid, functioning much like modern insurance schemes: members could draw on the collective fund if illness, death, or property loss struck.

Collegia served multiple roles: some acted as trade guilds, others as political pressure groups, and still others as informal social clubs where members could network and support one another. Their flexibility made them popular among the lower classes, who used them to lobby for reforms and protect their interests.

When the Republic gave way to the Empire, Julius Caesar curtailed the freedom to form new collegia, requiring imperial permission rather than simple mutual consent. This restriction marked the decline of the collegium’s prominence in Roman civic life.

1 Natural Theory Of Disease

In 36 BC, the scholar Marcus Varro warned against building near swamps, citing invisible, minuscule creatures that could infiltrate the body through the nose or mouth and cause serious illness. Although this insight was far from mainstream, it hinted at an early grasp of germ theory.

Most Romans subscribed to a naturalistic view of disease, attributing ailments to foul odors, imbalanced bodily humors, or environmental factors rather than divine wrath. Varro’s observations aligned with practical hygiene advice: maintain physical fitness, rest when ill, drink clean water, avoid lingering in damp places, and keep oneself clean. These recommendations were remarkably prescient, foreshadowing modern public‑health principles.

The British Empire, at its zenith, ruled over roughly a quarter of the planet’s land and its people. In that sprawling dominion, countless treasures were wrested from far‑flung cultures and shipped back to Britain, where they sit in museums or private collections to this day. Here’s a countdown of ten priceless artifacts pilfered by the British Empire, each with its own dramatic tale.

10 Gweagal Shield

The Gweagal shield originates from the Aboriginal Gweagal people of Australia and was traditionally used in both ceremonial rites and battlefield defence. It met its fateful capture during Captain James Cook’s 1770 voyage along Australia’s southeastern shoreline, when his crew clashed with a group of Gweagal warriors. Some accounts suggest Cook’s men were overwhelmed and forced to retaliate with gunfire, while others argue the British opened fire first.

Regardless of the exact sequence, the shield – together with spears and a handful of other items – was seized and shipped back to England. Today it resides in the British Museum’s collection, alongside several other objects taken by Cook’s expedition from Indigenous Australians.

9 Benin Bronzes

Before the British stormed Benin in 1897, the West African kingdom boasted a sophisticated urban centre, with a capital city reputedly larger and more elaborate than many European towns of the era, even out‑stretching the Great Wall of China in sheer wall length. The kingdom’s artistic legacy shone brightest in its bronze works – thousands of intricately cast pieces created by master craftsmen using the lost‑wax technique.

In February 1897, a 1,200‑strong British force under Sir Henry Rawson invaded and sacked Benin City, looting virtually every royal treasure, including the famed bronzes. These objects were shipped to Britain, eventually dispersing into museums and private collections across Europe.

8 Moai

The monolithic Moai statues of Easter Island, carved from compressed volcanic ash, were erected to honour deceased ancestors of the Rapa Noui people. Each towering figure embodies a deep spiritual connection to the island’s lineage.

Among them, the Hoa Hakananai‘a – translating to “the stolen or hidden friend” – stands out. At nearly 2.5 metres tall and weighing about four tonnes, this statue was seized by the British navy in 1868 and shipped to the British Museum, where it has remained for over a century and a half, still a potent symbol of Rapa Noui heritage.

7 Hevea Brasiliensis Seeds

Though not a single object, the theft of Hevea Brasiliensis rubber‑tree seeds dramatically reshaped global industry. In the late 1800s, Brazil’s Amazon region monopolised rubber, a commodity vital for tires, clothing, and countless other products. The Brazilian government strictly forbade the export of these seeds.

Enter Henry Wickham, a British explorer hired in 1876 to clandestinely acquire the seeds. After months of negotiations and covert dealings with local tribes, Wickham smuggled roughly 70,000 seeds back to England. This bold act enabled the British Empire to cultivate rubber in colonies such as Ceylon and Malaysia, eventually overtaking Brazil as the world’s leading rubber exporter by 1913.

6 Parthenon Marbles

The Parthenon Marbles – also known as the Elgin Marbles – are a collection of sculptural reliefs and architectural fragments that once adorned the Parthenon, the 5th‑century BC temple dedicated to Athena in Athens. Carved from Pentelic marble, they depict mythological battles, religious rites, and the birth of the goddess herself.

In 1801, Lord Elgin, a British diplomat, secured permission from the Ottoman authorities to remove the marbles and ship them to England. The British government purchased the collection, and they now reside in the British Museum, despite persistent calls from Greece for their repatriation. The museum argues the pieces are better preserved in London, while the Greek government maintains they were taken without proper consent.

5 Tipu’s Tiger

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7GefplfGGUM

Tipu’s Tiger is a remarkable automaton created in 1793 for the Mysorean ruler Tipu Sultan. The life‑sized mechanical tiger appears to be lunging at a European soldier, a vivid symbol of indigenous resistance against British encroachment. The device could emit realistic growls, while the captive figure let out a scream, showcasing both artistic mastery and political messaging.

After the British defeated and killed Tipu Sultan in 1799, the tiger was seized and eventually displayed at London’s Victoria and Albert Museum, where it remains alongside other spoils taken from Tipu’s palaces.

4 Maori Heads

From 1769 through the 1970s, thousands of ancestral remains belonging to New Zealand’s Māori and Moriori peoples were removed and sold to collectors, museums, and medical schools worldwide. The most coveted were the toi moko – tattooed heads of tribal leaders or fallen foes, meticulously preserved as cultural trophies.

The first recorded trade of a toi moko occurred in 1769 when Sir Joseph Banks, a member of Cook’s crew, acquired one. Demand surged across Europe, sparking a macabre “head rush” that fueled violent confrontations between settlers and indigenous groups. While some heads have been repatriated, many still languish in private collections abroad.

3 Rosetta Stone

The Rosetta Stone, a granodiorite stele dating to 196 BC, was part of a larger set of decrees issued by Egyptian priests. Its significance lies in its trilingual inscription – Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic script, and Greek – which unlocked the modern understanding of ancient Egyptian writing.

Discovered by French soldier Pierre‑François Bouchard during Napoleon’s Egyptian campaign in 1799, the stone fell into British hands after the 1801 defeat of French forces. It was subsequently presented to the British Museum, where it remains a centerpiece of the collection.

2 Ethiopian Tabots

Ethiopian tabots – small wooden or stone plaques – are considered sacred replicas of the Ark of the Covenant within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Historically, 44 such tabots existed, each linked to a distinct church or region.

Eleven of these holy objects were looted during the 1868 British expedition to Abyssinia and now sit in the British Museum’s holdings. Despite repeated Ethiopian appeals for their return, the artifacts remain in London, underscoring the ongoing debate over cultural restitution.

1 Great Star Of Africa

The Cullinan diamond, unearthed in South Africa’s Premier Mine in 1905, weighed an astonishing 3,106 carats. The stone was later cleaved, producing several gems, the largest being the 530‑carat Great Star of Africa (Cullinan I), which now crowns the Sovereign’s Scepter as part of the British Crown Jewels.

South Africa has repeatedly demanded the return of this iconic gem, but the British government has consistently declined, citing historical ownership and legal precedent.