In 1974, a handful of impoverished Shaanxi farmers were digging a well when they stumbled across one of the most incredible archaeological finds in history: thousands of unique terra‑cotta warriors standing guard over the tomb of China’s first emperor. The legendary Qin Shi Huang united the warring states of China and built the magnificent tomb—and the stories of his life are just as fascinating as you’d expect.

10. Amazing Stories From the Terra‑Cotta Warriors

10. Building The Tomb

Most people are familiar with the terra‑cotta warriors, each with their own unique features and armed with a variety of weapons. But the true scale of the tomb is almost impossible to comprehend, especially considering its construction began around 246 B.C.

The entire complex hasn’t even been excavated yet, but archaeologists believe it sprawls over 56 square kilometers (21 mi²) and includes around 600 individual sites. In addition to the terra‑cotta soldiers, with their horses and chariots, there are sections of the tomb dedicated to less militaristic figures. There are terra‑cotta government officials, terra‑cotta musicians with their instruments, acrobats captured in mid‑tumble, and even a section mimicking the emperor’s worldly court—complete with terra‑cotta birds.

Work on the complex began when the future Qin Shi Huang rose to a princely throne at the age of 13. Craftsmen from across China were recruited for the massive project and as many as 720,000 laborers were drafted to build it.

While Qin Shi Huang’s own final resting place hasn’t been found yet, it’s rumored to be even more incredible than the rest of the complex. Legend claims it’s surrounded by deadly rivers of mercury. Worryingly, high levels of mercury have actually been found in the soil around the tomb complex. Not content with rivers of death, Qin Shi Huang’s successor ordered that many of the tomb’s craftsmen be sealed inside it, ensuring that the first emperor’s burial place would be shrouded in secrecy.

9. The Dynasty Only Lasted 15 Years

When the Warring States period ended in 221 B.C., the victorious King Zheng of Qin renamed himself Shi Huangdi. Today, he’s usually referred to as Qin Shi Huang, or “First Qin Emperor.” But in spite of his massive achievement in unifying China, his dynasty only lasted 15 years. In other words, construction work on his tomb lasted longer than the Qin dynasty ruled China.

Qin Shi Huang died suddenly in 210 B.C., leaving almost nothing in place to dictate what should come after him. It was only on his deathbed that he declared his oldest son his heir, a decision that didn’t sit well with his closest advisers. Needing to keep the emperor’s death a secret while they maneuvered to get his second son into power, his advisers subsequently hid his body in a wagon of rotting fish, knowing that the smell would mask the scent of his corpse.

Spurred on by a string of natural disasters and the brutal Qin rule, the people revolted. Civil war ensued, and it wasn’t until 202 B.C. that the Han Dynasty would be established and life truly went on. Ironically, during his short reign Qin Shi Huang had dubbed his dynasty “the Empire of a Thousand Generations.”

8. Rumors Of Illegitimacy

According to the official story, the man who would become Qin Shi Huang was the son of King Zhuangxiang and a concubine known as the Lady Zhao. After the death of the king, Lady Zhao took another lover, giving Qin Shi Huang the headache of two half‑siblings. To make sure that neither ever challenged him, he had them both killed. For good measure, he also killed his mother’s lover and had his mother arrested.

Otherwise, not much is known about his early life or family, which may have helped the claims that he was actually illegitimate. Although the story is now considered doubtful, it comes from one of the definitive works of Chinese history, the Records of the Historian by Sima Qian. The author had inherited the position of court historian, choosing castration rather than death after angering a subsequent emperor.

After his castration, Sima Qian went on to complete his work, including the story of Qin Shi Huang’s true birth. Qin Shi Huang’s father, according to the story, was actually a man named Lu Buwei, who would go on to be one of his advisers. A wealthy merchant, one of Lu Buwei’s concubines had caught the eye of the king. Naturally, the merchant gave up the concubine—but she was already pregnant at the time. Lu Buwei knew this, taking solace in the fact that his son would one day inherit the kingdom.

7. Mount Taishan

A UNESCO World Heritage site, Mount Taishan is one of the most culturally important places in China. The majestic mountain has been a sacred site since Neolithic times, and it was in part because of Qin Shi Huang that it continued to be so even after the unification of China.

Even today, the ruins of a massive rock wall can still be seen on the mountain, the last remnant of fortifications built by the State of Qin. After his victory, Qin Shi Huang himself scaled the mountain in order to pay homage for his victory. His pilgrimage began the practice of emperors climbing the mountain after coming to power, firmly establishing it as the cultural center of China. With its 6,600 stone steps, the mountain is host to centuries of historic artifacts, including 1,800 stone tablets and countless inscriptions.

Mount Taishan, and the four surrounding mountains later became known as the Five Sacred Mountains, representing the original unification of China.

6. The Strange Birth Of Legalism

Qin Shi Huang ruled through the principle of legalism. Simply put, legalism dictates that people must earn what they get and pay the price for doing something wrong. Accomplishments lead to promotions and wealth, while making a mistake or breaking the law leads to punishment. Laws need to be clearly stated and public, and the only way to get ahead in life is by following the rules.

One of the most famous legalist reformers was Shang Yang, who first presented his theories to King Xiao of Qin. According to the story, the philosopher appeared before the king three times to impart his wisdom. On the first two occasions, the king fell asleep midway through the discussion. The third time, Shang Yang tried a different tack and talked about the use of military might to enforce the law. That got the king’s attention, and a fourth meeting for Shang Yang, where the details of legalism were hashed out.

In theory, some of the principles Shang Yang advocated don’t sound that bad. The old aristocracy was abolished, replaced with those loyal to the central government. The government itself was centralized, and merit was rewarded. Less popular was the division of the population into small family groups of 5 or 10, with the understanding that if one member did something wrong, the others needed to report it to the government or receive the designated punishment of being cut in half.

Ironically, Shang Yang ultimately found himself the victim of some aristocratic plotting and was sentenced to be torn apart by five chariots.

5. The Original Great Wall

More than 20,000 kilometers (12,430 mi) long, the Great Wall of China is one of the most famous works of human engineering. But the wall we know today wasn’t the first of China’s great walls.

During the Warring States period, the Qin kingdom began building walls to protect their territory. Although massive, the early walls were a far cry from the modern stone structure. Instead, their builders used a method called earth‑ramming. Soil was hauled to the building site, mixed with a binding agent, and then tightly packed. Once the soil dried, it formed the earliest iteration of the Great Wall of China.

In some places, the wall was up to 4.5 meters (15 ft) tall, making it an incredibly formidable obstacle for the time. Much like the later wall, the earth‑rammed structure followed some pretty inhospitable terrain, meaning that any troops marching against the Qin would have to scale mountains and ridges as well as contending with the wall. Later, when Qin Shi Huang had a unified country to protect, he would begin joining the sections of wall, forming the oldest version of the wall we know today.

4. The Dragon Boat Festival

Still held today, the Dragon Boat Festival is an extremely ancient celebration with roots in the Warring States period (although some argue that the true roots of the festival go back even further). According to legend, the festival is held in the memory of a poet and philosopher named Qu Yuan. A high‑ranking member of the court of the Chu State, Qu Yuan spoke out in favor of uniting with rival states in order to oppose the power of Qin. His temerity got him exiled from the court, but he continued to write, becoming one of the most influential poets of the era. It was said that when he heard that Chu had fallen to the Qin, he drowned himself in the Miluo River.

The legend claims that when word spread of the beloved poet’s fate, the people immediately took to the river to search for his body. Hence, a boat race is held every year on the anniversary of his death.

Along with the boat race, the festivities also include a type of dumpling called the zongzi, which also dates back to the poet. At the time, it was believed that only those whose physical bodies were intact would be allowed entrance to the afterlife. It’s said that while some searched for the poet’s body, others threw zongzi into the river in the hope that anything that might seek to devour his corpse would eat the dumplings instead.

3. The Dazexiang Uprising

The rebellion against the Qin Dynasty started almost immediately after the death of Qin Shi Huang and the ascension of his son Hu Hai. While the legalist philosophy certainly had some benefits, like rewarding those who worked hard and putting experienced people in positions of power, it could also be incredibly cruel, with those who failed punished harshly, regardless of the circumstances.

Missing a deadline was considered breaking your word, and under Qin rule that meant being put to death. In 209 B.C. (about a year after Qin Shi Huang’s death), a group of 900 peasant soldiers were on their way from the Huaihe River area to what is now Beijing. Severe rains and floods held them up, and it wasn’t long before they realized that they weren’t going to make their deadline. Knowing that they faced certain execution, the peasants killed their officers and declared their own kingdom.

Two men—Chen Sheng and Wu Gang—took charge, sending their peasant army up against the mighty Qin forces. Naturally, they were soundly defeated and eventually murdered by their own forces. But other rebellions soon broke out, and the short‑lived uprising marked the beginning of the end for the Qin Dynasty.

2. The Burning Of Books And Burying Of Scholars

Aside from his incredible tomb, Qin Shi Huang is perhaps most famous for his burning of religious and historical texts and his order to bury alive 460 Confucian scholars. In 1958, Mao Zedong even referenced the notorious act, stating: “People always condemn Emperor Qin Shi Huang for burning books and burying alive Confucian scholars, and list these as his greatest crimes. I think, however, he killed too few Confucians.”

According to the story, Qin Shi Huang ordered that every work of pre‑Qin Dynasty history be turned over to the authorities for destruction. It’s usually painted as a massive inquisition that resulted in the loss of pretty much all historical and cultural works predating the period. That’s probably something of an exaggeration, but there is some evidence that Qin Shi Huang ordered books to be burned to prevent scholars speaking “of the past in order to criticize the present.”

However, the burying of the scholars doesn’t appear in the historical record until hundreds of years later. Furthermore, it was recorded by Confucians, who had every reason to paint the legalist dynasty in a negative light. For this reason, the event is now viewed skeptically by historians, although it’s impossible to disprove entirely.

1. The Warriors Might Have Been Real People

The thousands of terra‑cotta warriors that have been excavated are all incredibly unique. They have different facial features, distinct details on their armor, and a variety of weapons. For a long time, it was thought that they were simply mass‑produced in pieces, something that’s easy enough to do with terra‑cotta. A handful of craftsmen would have been responsible for eyebrows, while another group would have been responsible for hats, and another group would have assembled all the individual pieces.

That would have been impressive enough on its own, but new research suggests that the statues were actually based on real people. The breakthrough came when University College London researchers realized that, much like our fingerprints, our ears are unique to us. So they looked at the construction of the auricular ridges on each statue.

And they’re all different.

The implications are staggering. As if the massive production line needed to complete the army wasn’t enough, it now appears that every statue was based on a real soldier alive at the time of Qin Shi Huang. So far, the researchers have only compared a relatively small number of ears, but the findings definitely warrant further study. If the ears continue to be unique, we might find we’re looking at the real features of an army that lived, breathed, and fought more than 2,000 years ago.

The saga of the Han dynasty’s collapse is a roller‑coaster of intrigue, treachery, and blood‑soaked upheaval. In this list we count down the 10 fateful events that set the stage for the Three Kingdoms era, from the secretive world of palace eunuchs to the blazing ruin of the Northern Palace. Grab a seat, because the drama is about to get deliciously intense.

10 Eunuchs Of The Northern Palace

The Han emperor called Luoyang home, ruling his affairs by day from the Southern Palace and retiring each night to the Northern Palace. That secluded wing housed dozens of consorts, each with her own private quarters, and a legion of maids who tended to every need. If the emperor fancied a maid, she could be elevated to consort, and if she bore a child, she rose even higher. No male outsider was permitted near these chambers—any fertile man caught in the women’s quarters faced certain death, and even adult princes were barred from overnight stays.

Only a select cadre of men could remain after dark: they served as guards or attendants, but with a stark condition—each had to be castrated, becoming a eunuch. These eunuchs became the emperor’s confidants, teachers, and caretakers. Families from across the empire sent their sons, freshly castrated, to gain a foothold at court, while others volunteered for the coveted proximity to power.

9 Meet The Knifers

Enter the “knifers,” a grim guild of specialists who offered to remove a man’s genitals for a fee. Before each operation they asked the hopeful three times, “Do you regret this?” A flinch meant cancellation; a steady answer earned a swift, brutal slice down to the base of the organ.

After the cut, a metal plug was jammed into the urethra and the wound bandaged. For three agonising days the new eunuch could neither drink nor urinate. On day three the plug was removed, unleashing a torrent of urine—if nothing flowed, infection meant certain death. Occasionally, eunuchs had to present their severed parts for inspection, preserving them in sealed boxes. Losing one’s “precious” meant a clandestine purchase of a replacement or borrowing from a fellow eunuch.

8 Eunuchs Corrupt The Young Princes

Derogatory jibes like “a teapot without a spout” or “a dog without a tail” were sly insults aimed at eunuchs. Their high‑pitched voices, beardless faces, and clumsy gait made them easy targets for mockery. Freshly castrated eunuchs were notorious for losing control of their bladders, spawning the common slur “smelly as a eunuch.” Royal consorts sometimes kept juvenile eunuchs as pets, even dressing them like little girls.

Older eunuchs, however, were entrusted with raising the empire’s princes. The belief was that a man who could not sire children would lack ambition for power. In reality, eunuchs were just as susceptible to corruption. They cultivated dependence in the young heirs, whispering that enemies lurked everywhere and that only their eunuch caretakers could be trusted. Emperor Ling, who ascended at twelve in AD 168, relied heavily on their counsel.

7 Hidden Mansions

In AD 169, scholars publicly denounced the eunuchs’ grip on power. The eunuchs, fearing exposure, persuaded Emperor Ling that these scholars plotted treason. Over a hundred leading scholars were arrested and executed; the rest lost all civil rights, and future scholars were barred from office.

The eunuchs turned the palace into a personal empire: they bought and sold official posts, infiltrated the military, and plundered the treasury. Ling adored the eunuchs Zhao Zhong and Zhang Rang, calling them his “mother and father.” They convinced him never to ascend the towering palace roofs, lest he glimpse the massive mansions they were secretly constructing for themselves (see the pottery model above).

Bankrupt from their excesses, the empire needed cash. In AD 178 Ling began selling public offices to the highest bidders. Many buyers could not pay outright, so Ling offered installment plans, thrusting them into debt. To repay, these officials resorted to embezzlement and bribery, further draining the state.

6 Brothers Of The Faith

Emperor Ling embarked on a grand project of imperial gardens, demanding costly tributes from the provinces. Local governors, pressed to meet these demands, levied crushing taxes on the populace. Meanwhile, floods and famine ravaged the land, forcing many into banditry. Ling hoarded the empire’s wealth, siphoning it into a federal reserve.

Amid the misery, a provincial doctor named Zhang Jue witnessed the suffering and experienced a spiritual awakening. He became a Taoist faith healer, urging people to confess sins for self‑healing. His younger brothers, also physicians, joined his mission, spreading the message far and wide. Their following swelled to hundreds of thousands.

Zhang Jue prophesied a yellow sky heralding the Han’s demise and the rise of a utopian kingdom. His followers donned yellow scarves, symbolizing the impending celestial shift, and prepared for armed revolt.

5 The Yellow Turban Rebellion

Zhang Jue’s fervent followers alarmed imperial ministers, who begged Emperor Ling for action. Ling, indifferent, continued imposing heavy taxes. The rebels spread a prophecy: “The azure sky dies, a Yellow Heaven rises. In the year jiazi, great fortune will come.” They wrote the year jiazi in chalk on government buildings and city gates.

Forming a shadow government, the rebels infiltrated the court, plotting to overthrow the empire. Their scheme leaked; Ling ordered the conspirators executed and dispatched troops to arrest Zhang Jue and his brothers.

Facing imminent capture, Zhang Jue launched the rebellion early. Though chaotic and poorly coordinated, the sheer numbers of rebels allowed them to seize cities and control vast territories. While Ling proved a poor ruler, his military commanders were not, and they began to respond forcefully.

4 Rise Of The Legendary Heroes

The Yellow Turban war birthed legendary figures later immortalized in Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Liu Bei, a charismatic folk hero, rallied a volunteer army to defend the crumbling empire. Meanwhile, Chancellor Cao Cao commanded a cavalry that enforced bans on cults, and his strategic insights later appeared in The Art of War.

Zhang Jue’s brothers fell in battle, and Zhang Jue himself died under mysterious circumstances. Though the rebellion was suppressed, the devastation was immense: hundreds of thousands perished, cities lay in ruins, and bandits roamed unchecked. Overwhelmed, Ling delegated self‑governance to local leaders, granting them expanded political and military authority. These empowered warlords earned the admiration of their people, eclipsing loyalty to the emperor.

Emperor Ling and the eunuchs, however, continued to levy oppressive taxes, keeping the common folk under strain.

3 A Trap

He Jin, brother to the empress, commanded the armies that quelled the Yellow Turbans. Afterward, he was elevated to commander‑in‑chief, wielding massive political clout. His primary objective: eradicate the eunuch faction.

In AD 189, Emperor Ling fell gravely ill, leaving two potential heirs. Prince Xie, the son of a favored consort, enjoyed eunuch support; Prince Bian, the empress’s son, lacked such backing. Ling died before naming a successor. Fearing He Jin would install Prince Bian, the eunuchs plotted murder.

They forged a summons from the empress, luring He Jin to the palace. Upon arrival, He Jin encountered Pan Yin, an old friend and eunuch‑affiliated soldier, at the gate. Pan Yin’s terrified expression prompted He Jin to feign illness and retreat. From a distance, He Jin declared Prince Bian emperor, setting the stage for further treachery.

2 The Eunuch Suicides

The tension between He Jin and the eunuchs escalated. He Jin petitioned his sister, the Empress Dowager, to execute all eunuchs, but she was allied with them. He Jin threatened her, calling in frontier warlord Dong Zhuo to encircle the palace with his forces.

Terrified, the eunuchs attempted a daring ambush, slaying He Jin within the palace walls. In retaliation, He Jin’s allies stormed the palace, slaughtering any eunuch they could locate. The most powerful group, known as the Ten Attendants, fled with the emperor and Prince Xie. Their flight led them to the Yellow River, where they were cornered. With no escape, the eunuchs chose to drown themselves, ending their lives in the river.

1 The Northern Palace Burns

While officials escorted the emperor and Prince Xie back to the palace, warlord Dong Zhuo intercepted them with a formidable army. The emperor, paralyzed by fear, could barely speak; Prince Xie answered Dong Zhuo’s questions calmly and clearly. With both in his grasp, Dong Zhuo marched into the capital, commandeering the leaderless forces of He Jin and the eunuch allies.

Dong Zhuo forced the emperor to abdicate, later poisoning the former ruler and his mother. He installed Prince Xie as a mere puppet, while he declared himself chancellor, brandishing a sword into council meetings and refusing to remove his shoes. He even slept in Emperor Xian’s bed and consorted with the emperor’s maids as his troops ravaged, raped, and slaughtered the city’s inhabitants.

When the populace could endure no more cruelty, they rose against Dong Zhuo. The empire fractured, and the heroes of the Yellow Turban Rebellion rallied their followers. Dong Zhuo fled the capital, setting fire to the Northern Palace as he escaped, sealing the Han dynasty’s final, tragic chapter.

The Ptolemaic Kingdom offers a fascinating glimpse into a world of bloodshed, and the 10 bloody wars that defined it bookend the lives of two iconic figures: Alexander the Great and Cleopatra.

10 The Rise Of The Dynasty

10 Bloody Wars Ignite: The Rise Of The Dynasty

The assassination of Alexander the Great sent the ancient world spiralling into turmoil as his former generals scrambled for supremacy, sparking a half‑century of conflict known as the Wars of the Diadochi—the “successors” wars.

Two rival factions emerged: one championed Alexander’s half‑brother Arrhidaeus, while the other pressed the claim of his unborn son by Roxana, the future Alexander IV. Ultimately, both were installed as joint monarchs, with Perdiccas acting as regent and commander‑in‑chief.

This arrangement was merely a clever ruse for Perdiccas to consolidate his own power. He began eliminating opponents, and at the 323 BC Partition of Babylon he assigned his loyal generals as satraps across the empire.

Ptolemy I Soter received Egypt. He swiftly moved against Cleomenes, a powerful official dispatched to Alexandria to serve Perdiccas, having him arrested and executed. He then absconded with Alexander’s body, burying it in Egypt instead of the Macedonian tomb prepared for the great conqueror.

Perdiccas deemed the theft an act of war and launched an invasion of Egypt, only to fail in crossing the Nile and suffer massive losses. His own officers turned on him, assassinating him in 321/320 BC.

Some scholars argue that Ptolemy could have seized the regency after Perdiccas’s death, but he instead chose to found his own dynasty in Egypt, cementing a new royal line.

9 Three Intrigues, An Execution, And An Exile

Ptolemy I was succeeded by his son, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, yet it was his daughter, Arsinoe II, who proved to be a master of intrigue, ruthlessly maneuvering herself into positions of power wherever she went.

Ptolemy II bolstered his rule through two politically astute marriages to Lysimachus, king of Thrace and a fellow Diadochi. Around 299 BC, Lysimachus wed Ptolemy’s sister Arsinoe II, while the Egyptian king married the Thracian ruler’s daughter, also named Arsinoe.

The Ptolemaic Arsinoe bore Lysimachus three sons, yet the throne already belonged to Lysimachus’s own son, Agathocles. The designated heir was later convicted of treason and executed circa 282 BC—a move many historians attribute to Arsinoe’s machinations to clear the path for her own offspring. This scandal sparked revolts in Asia Minor, and Lysimachus, trying to suppress the unrest, fell in battle.

Arsinoe subsequently married her half‑brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, who sought to strengthen his claims over Thrace and Macedonia. Though she may have plotted against him, the plan failed, and Ceraunus ordered the murder of two of her sons.

Eventually, Arsinoe returned to Egypt. The Thracian Arsinoe—her brother’s wife—was later exiled on accusations of plotting regicide, a charge many suspect was fabricated by the Egyptian queen herself. Not long after, Arsinoe married her brother and ascended as queen of Egypt.

8 A Purge Of Ptolemies

Ptolemaic Egypt reached its zenith under Ptolemy III Euergetes, whose triumphs in the Third Syrian War marked a golden age. The subsequent reign of his son, Ptolemy IV Philopator, signalled the onset of decline, as historians portray him as a weak monarch easily swayed by indulgent courtiers.

Ascending the throne in 221 BC at twenty‑three, Ptolemy IV devoted himself to a life of excess, delegating the administration to his chief minister, Sosibius. The Greek historian Polybius records that Sosibius orchestrated the murders of several close relatives, including Ptolemy’s mother, Berenice II, his brother Magas, and his uncle Lysimachus.

Following the pattern of his forebears, Ptolemy IV married his sister Arsinoe III. After his death in 204 BC, Sosibius and another official, Agathocles, arranged for Arsinoe III’s death, ensuring they could act as regents for the under‑age Ptolemy V.

7 Anything For Power

Numerous members of the Ptolemaic line displayed a willingness to commit ruthless acts to seize power, but few matched the savagery of Ptolemy VIII Physcon.

Physcon endured a protracted struggle for the throne against his elder brother, Ptolemy VI Philometor. In 145 BC the older brother fell in battle, prompting his sister‑wife Cleopatra II to push for her young son, Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator, to assume rulership.

The exact nature of Physcon’s reign remains a point of scholarly debate; some contend he never truly ruled. If he did, his tenure was brief, as Cleopatra was forced to marry him and share power. Once Neos Philopator was deposed, Physcon ordered his execution.

Having secured the throne, Physcon rechristened himself Ptolemy Euergetes, echoing an illustrious ancestor. He wed his niece, Cleopatra III, while still married to her mother—a tangled family web typical of the dynasty.

In 131 BC, Cleopatra II orchestrated a rebellion that forced Physcon to flee Alexandria with Cleopatra III. They spent four years in exile on Cyprus, during which Cleopatra II acted as regent for her son, Ptolemy Memphites, who never came of age because Physcon eventually reunited with his son only to murder him.

Physcon then displayed a gruesome display of power: he severed the boy’s head, hands, and legs, sending the dismembered limbs to Alexandria on Cleopatra’s birthday. Despite these barbaric acts, the siblings eventually reconciled publicly, governing jointly alongside Cleopatra III until Physcon’s death in 116 BC.

6 Violent Ends For Violent People

The brief yet ferocious reign of Ptolemy XI Alexander II stands out as a stark blemish on the three‑century Ptolemaic saga.

He succeeded his father, Ptolemy X Alexander I, in 80 BC and took as wife—also his cousin—Berenice III, who had briefly ruled alone and won the affection of the Egyptian populace.

However, the newly‑wedded pharaoh grew hostile toward his wife. Within three weeks of their marriage, he ordered Berenice’s assassination. The public outrage was swift: an Alexandrian mob stormed the palace gymnasium and killed the young king.

5 Rome Intervenes

Ptolemy XII Auletes claimed the throne in 80 BC, at a time when Egypt had become a Roman client state, obliged to pay a hefty tribute that imposed crushing taxes on its citizens.

In 58 BC, Rome seized Cyprus, and Ptolemy’s brother—the King of Cyprus—committed suicide. The Egyptian populace demanded that Ptolemy either demand the return of Cyprus or renounce Rome’s dominance, but he refused both, prompting a rebellion that forced him into exile.

Seeking refuge, he fled to Rome and lodged with the powerful general Pompey. While in the capital, discussions erupted in the Senate about restoring him to power in Egypt.

A delegation of one hundred Egyptians, led by the philosopher Dio of Alexandria, prepared to present their grievances before the Senate, hoping to secure aid for their ousted monarch.

Yet Auletes leveraged his wealth and Pompey’s connections to sabotage the mission: most of the envoys were murdered—including Dio—while the few survivors were bought off with bribes.

Although violence solved the messenger problem, a divine dilemma persisted. The Romans, in typical crisis fashion, consulted the Sibylline Books, a collection of prophetic sayings.

The Sibylline prophecy warned, “If the king of Egypt comes requesting any aid, refuse him not friendship, nor yet succour him with any great force; else you shall have both toils and dangers.”

4 The March Gabinius

The Sibylline injunction led the Senate to deny military assistance to Ptolemy, yet avarice ultimately overrode the prophetic counsel. Pompey dispatched his lieutenant, Aulus Gabinius, to invade Egypt without Senate approval—a risk the powerful general could afford.

During Ptolemy’s exile, his daughter Berenice IV assumed the throne. She attempted to cement an alliance by marrying Seleucus of Syria, only to have him slain and then wed Archelaus.

Archelaus perished when Gabinius seized Alexandria. The Roman general reinstated Ptolemy, leaving behind a Roman legion to safeguard the restored king, a force later known as the Gabiniani.

Back on the Egyptian throne, Ptolemy ordered the execution of his own daughter. He also plundered the wealth of the realm’s richest citizens to settle the massive debt he owed to Gabinius and Pompey.

Gabinius’s triumph was short‑lived. The Roman populace condemned his defiance of the Sibylline warnings and the Senate, leading to his arrest upon return to Rome on charges of high treason.

Through generous bribery and political maneuvering, Gabinius was acquitted of the most serious charge, though he was later convicted of lesser offenses, exiled, and had his property confiscated.

3 The Murder Of Pompey

In 52 BC, Ptolemy XII appointed his daughter Cleopatra VII Philopator as co‑regent, hoping she would share power with her brother Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator. Both siblings, however, sought Roman backing.

At that juncture, Julius Caesar was locked in a civil war that would topple the Republic, having just secured a decisive victory over Pompey at Pharsalus.

Pompey, seeking refuge and support, sailed to Egypt, expecting the familiar hospitality his father had once received from Ptolemy XIII. Yet Ptolemy, eager to curry favor with Caesar, chose a different path.

He dispatched a contingent to greet Pompey under the pretense of friendship, but the men seized the opportunity to stab, decapitate, and discard Pompey’s body into the Nile. Ancient sources name two Gabiniani—former tribune Lucius Septimius and centurion Salvius—alongside Egyptian commander Achillas as the perpetrators.

The gruesome act backfired spectacularly: Caesar, presented with Pompey’s severed head and his signet ring, was reportedly moved to tears, expressing disgust at the treacherous murder.

2 War Of The Ptolemies

Whether Pompey’s assassination swayed Caesar remains uncertain, yet the Roman leader threw his weight behind Cleopatra. Lacking sufficient troops for open warfare, Caesar entrenched himself within Alexandria in 47 BC as Ptolemy’s forces, led by Achillas, laid siege to the city.

Another child of Ptolemy XII, Arsinoe IV, entered the fray, asserting her claim to the throne by siding with her brother Ptolemy XIII. She ordered the execution of Achillas, replacing him with her tutor Ganymedes.

Eventually, Caesar received reinforcements from his ally Mithridates of Pergamum, securing a decisive victory at the Battle of the Nile in 47 BC. Ptolemy XIII drowned in the river at the age of fifteen, while Arsinoe IV was first paraded through Rome as a captive and later exiled to the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, only to be executed at Cleopatra’s behest.

1 The End Of The Dynasty

Cleopatra reclaimed the Egyptian throne, yet Julius Caesar arranged for her to rule jointly with her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV. Their marriage was fleeting; in March 44 BC Caesar was assassinated in Rome. Two months later, Ptolemy XIV died under mysterious circumstances, with historians such as Cassius Dio and Josephus suggesting Cleopatra poisoned him to elevate her son, Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar—better known as Caesarion—as the new ruler.

If Cleopatra indeed orchestrated his death, it was to secure Caesarion’s position as pharaoh, proudly branding him as Julius Caesar’s offspring.

With Caesar gone, Cleopatra turned to Marcus Antony, a member of the Second Triumvirate governing Rome. In 34 BC Antony issued the Donations of Alexandria, granting lands and titles to Cleopatra’s children, as well as to three of his own offspring.

Crucially, Antony recognized Caesarion as the legitimate heir of Julius Caesar, a move that enraged the Roman establishment, which saw Antony as abandoning Roman interests for Egyptian influence. Octavian, Caesar’s adopted son, perceived Caesarion as a direct threat.

War erupted between Antony and Octavian, culminating in Octavian’s triumph at the Battle of Actium and the subsequent siege of Alexandria. Antony and Cleopatra allegedly committed suicide, while Octavian ordered Caesarion’s execution.

Following these events, Egypt was annexed as a Roman province. Octavian, now Augustus Caesar, became the first Roman emperor, marking the definitive end of the Ptolemaic dynasty.

What does the average person know about Babylon? Probably they’ve heard the phrase “whore of Babylon.” They also know of them as villains from the Bible for bringing one of God’s punishments to Israel. Maybe they’ll remember something about Hammurabi’s Code of Laws from history class, or playing Civilization if they like video games. 

There’s so much more to Babylonian civilization. That’s true even if you limit the scope of your analysis to the Amorite Dynasty. They were the first dynasty of the empire, and this particular dynasty lasted from 1894 BC to 1595 BC. They came to an end more than a millennium before Babylon became one of history’s villain figures for eons by destroying Israel around 586 BC, so even the hardcore Abrahamic faithful can find these particular people interesting without guilt.

10. Math Pioneers

Many people don’t find it particularly exciting for someone to be good at geometry, trigonometry, and algebra. Yet these are some of the most significant contributions that the Babylonian Empire made to civilization. This is firmly established because they were considerate enough to record their mathematical tables on clay tablets known as cuneiform, which were used as teaching aids for elite students. 

What’s more, First Dynasty Babylonians were able to do something with advanced mathematics that the majority of students today have never been able to: find practical applications for it. They were able to design and aim cutting edge siege equipment for their era, which was invaluable for conquering such rivals as the Akkadian Empire. It also found use in portioning limited arriable land and for maximizing agricultural yields. Indeed, they were so celebrated for their math accomplishments that a particular cuneiform known as Plimpton 322 was speculated in 2017 as potentially offering a superior trigonometry model to those in common use today, though in August 2017 Scientific American aggressively threw some cold water on that notion when they told everyone “don’t fall for [the] hype.” 

9. The Sometimes Bewildering Code of Laws

As implied earlier, Hammurabi, the sixth king of the dynasty, is best known for codifying a system of laws. Since he reigned from 1792 to 1750 BC, his code of laws predates the Ten Commandments of Moses by centuries. Curiously, existing clay tablets of his code date to long after. You’ve probably heard that it contains a law that a successful surgeon was to be paid 10 shekels, but if the patient died the surgeon was to lose a hand. As it happens, that’s by no means the most alien law to modern thinking. 

For example, one of Hammurabi’s laws basically said that if someone were found guilty of burglary, after they were executed their body was to be buried on the premises of the home they had broken into, which seems at least a bit of a hassle for a family that just went through such an ordeal. If no burglar was caught, essentially the community became the household’s insurance provider as the homeowner was to declare their losses under oath and then the community was to collectively compensate them. Another law said that if the wife of a soldier taken prisoner during the war had children with another man after her house ran out of food, she then had to return to her husband if he came back, but the paramour had custody of the children. 

While it’s understandable that it was punishable by death to be a construction worker in a building that collapsed and killed a homeowner, it’s perhaps less understandable that if, in a collapse, the child of the homeowner died, that meant the construction owner’s child was to be put to death. In neither case were they to be buried at the site of the collapse, even though that seems much more appropriate than burying a burglar there. It was also punishable by death to be a female tavern keeper where a band of thieves met, while no stipulations stated that the tavern keeper had to be a knowing accessory to the crime.

8. The Overlooked Codifier of the Empire

There is a tendency to go overboard in giving Hammurabi credit for Babylon’s success as an empire, with some acting as if the empire took a nosedive immediately after he stepped down. This might seem supported by the fact that literally dozens of cities rose up in rebellion, comprising pretty much everything Hammurabi had conquered. As it happened, while he is much less famous than his father, Samsu-iluna did a commendable job of his own keeping his father’s realm intact during his reign from 1750 to 1712 BC. 

When pretty much every major city in the Southern Region of the empire rebelled, it initially caught Samsu-iluna off guard, but he rallied quickly. Within two years, he had put down the rebellion and made allies of rival kings, such as Rim-Anum of the major city of Uruk. Ironically, it was the arrival of a great enemy of the Babylonian Empire that aided him greatly. The Kassites invaded the south and what had once been an opposition population in large part turned into a mass of refugees for Samsu-iluna to take in. Not that Samsu-ilana was particularly merciful: In putting down the rebellion and driving out the Kassites, the infrastructure of the Southern regions were damaged to an extent where they were never fully repaired during the First Dynasty. In all, 26 enemy kings were put down by Samsu-iluna. While Hammurabi had invaded and beaten the leaders of these regions, it was his much-overlooked son who showed that the First Dynasty would last as a major power for the region.  

7. The War Dam

While the situation was much more stabilized by the time Samsu-iluna’s son Abiesh took the throne, he had rebellions of his own to deal with, and in one case, he adopted a solution that would seem millennia ahead of its time. During the 19th year of his reign, having routed the rebel armies of the Elamites, Abiesh desperately wanted to capture an enemy king that was said to be from “Sealand.” Instead of relying on an army, Abiesh turned to engineering. He had the Tigris River dammed so that the enemy’s escape route was disrupted by flooding. 

Surprisingly, while the Babylonians were successful in altering the flow of one of the two major rivers that made Mesopotamia the Fertile Crescent it was, history records that he didn’t capture the king he was after. That’s an astonishing level of embarrassing honesty as far as official records go. As his very materialistic and indirect solution to a military challenge implied, the surviving records of Abiesh imply that he concerned himself more with supply chains and goods, such as grain shipments and pack animals for cities in need, and his success in those fields goes to show that his failure to capture an enemy king by no means indicated his reign was a failure overall.  

6. The Forgotten Father

While Hammurabi’s successors by no means deserved to be overlooked in the way they largely have been by historians, his predecessors weren’t exactly slouches either. Hammurabi’s father, Sin-Muballit, took the throne for the city-state of Babylon in 1748 BC, and the argument could be made that he was the first ruler of the First Dynasty, since he was the first to declare himself King of Babylon. He faced the dynasties of Larsa and Isin, which had long been enemies of Babylon.

In the 13th year of his reign, Sin-Muballit defeated an attack from the city-state of Ur. Apparently no longer content for his city-state to simply hold its own, Sin-Muballit retained the initiative and struck out at the city of Isin. In the 17th year of his reign, he conquered it. He had two more years to reign and consolidate power, but it was he that set Babylon on the path to conquest that would make an empire of the city. It’s perhaps a bit understandable that his reign is so overshadowed, as he reigned a relatively modest 19 years and Babylon was not yet the sort of powerhouse that could afford to set down the details of the life of the king in clay yet.  

5. Amorite Conquest

If you’re one of the rare list consumers who doesn’t skip intros, you probably noticed that the word “Amorite” was used to describe the first Babylonian Dynasty, and odds are you had no idea what it meant. Well, it turns out that Babylon became one of the largest and easily the most celebrated civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia for a very surprising reason: A bunch of raiders needed to find a place to feed their horses.  

The Amorites were a nomadic group from what today is Syria. Their chieftains led them into Mesopotamia in no small part looking for grazing land. While many surviving Sumerian accounts are dismissive of them for not even advancing enough to “know grain,” the primitives had the last laugh when they conquered the Sumerians and the Babylonians as well. This may sound similar to stories of the barbarians that sacked Rome early in its history, or the Mongols that created the largest empire in the world. The Amorites were different in that while they weren’t an agrarian society; they set down roots in the cities they conquered and reigned over them for centuries. It could be said that their hot-blooded nomadic tradition would turn the Babylonians into a people that would create one of the first empires, but since there were five kings between their conquest of Babylon and Babylon’s expansion into an empire, those must have been very recessive genes that caused that. 

4. Greece Took Their Astronomy

Many people today associate ancient astronomy more with Greece than any other ancient empire. After all, all the constellations we know have Greek names, and the oldest astronomers we can name are individuals like Pythagorus. As it happens, while the First Dynasty was cursing future generations of students with trigonometry and algebra, they were also performing major innovations in astronomy, such as recording of the Transit of Venus during the reign of King Ammisaqda (1646-1626 BC). 

It would be the conquest of Babylon by Alexander the Great that would spread huge amounts of information regarding astronomy throughout the Greek Empire, and with such speed that there was no question Babylon was the impetus. To be fair to the Greeks, they didn’t just copy then Babylonians’ homework. Centuries after Alexander’s conquest, geographers such as Strabo of Amasia would give detailed tributes to the astronomical (in both senses of the word) accomplishments of the Babylonians. Still, it wouldn’t hurt to give a constellation or two a Babylonian name, just to give them their due. 

3. The Client Priesthood

When they weren’t trying to expand the empire, or more often trying to keep the existing parts of the empire in the fold by putting down rebellions, one of the main preoccupations of the First Dynasty was keeping the favor of the priests and paying tribute to Babylon’s most esteemed god, Marduk. As the approval of Marduk supposedly endowed the king of kings with his divine destiny, this largely amounted to tithing like mad. Even with all his military accomplishments, Hammurabi was particularly noted for buying their favor, though he was also noted for giving extremely strict laws for priests, such as making drinking by holy people a crime punishable by death. A number of kings bribed the priesthood to declare them immortal, but since this was so clearly not the physical reality, it tended to be done only by the most desperate monarchs.  

With so much wealth pouring into them over the centuries, the Babylonian priesthood could think big. Not only were many grand temples built throughout the empire, but technological innovations emerged as well. Babylonian temples were among the first buildings in human history to incorporate columns into their design. This was more a practical decision than an aesthetic one, as the bricks used at the time were largely still crude. With it being a capitol offense for a building to collapse and kill someone, Babylonian construction workers had all the motivation in the world to be so careful.

2. State of the Art Statues

What is one of the defining features of a statue? Something so fundamental that it wouldn’t even occur to you as an aspect of a statue? In the case of the Babylonians, it was to be a freestanding three-dimensional structure. Before their masons came along, statues were bas reliefs, meaning that they were essentially two dimensional and extended from walls. Babylonians were the first to build them as separate structures and introduce a high degree of realism to them.

Babylonian stone carvers favored alabaster, diorite, and limestone. Since none of these materials were particularly abundant or easy to ship with the tools of the day, extremely skilled craftsmen were strongly favored over anything like mass production. Their empire was also early in decorating such containers as clay pots. With such a degree of artistic development, it’s little surprise that Babylon was famous for being perhaps the most beautiful city in the world, even centuries before the famed Hanging Gardens came and went. 

1. Attack of the Hittites

While the Kassites to the East of Babylon inadvertently saved the First Dynasty for a time by disrupting the rebellion against Samsu-iluna, ultimately they also buried that dynasty too. In 1595, a Hittite army (from what’s now Turkey) under Mursulius I invaded Babylon and sacked the capitol. While the Hittites did not have the inclination to stay and consolidate power, they had weakened Babylon enough for the Kassitites to exploit the power vacuum, and reign over Babylon for nearly five centuries, which was actually a fair deal longer than the First Dynasty could.  

Yet even as they were being conquered, the Amorites had a surprising degree of influence over the Kassites. The religions of Babylon didn’t just remain in place, they actually spread into the Kassites. Indeed, the first king of the Kassite Dynasty, Agum-Kakrime, waged war against the Hittites and was said to have retrieved a statue of Marduk that the Hittites had stolen. It was perhaps one of the greatest victories that a dynasty ever scored from beyond the grave.     

Dustin Koski talks about another dead empire in the supernatural comedy novel he co-wrote with Jonathan “Bogleech” Wojcik, Return of the Living.