The actual day-to-day of archaeology and other similar professions may not be that exciting, as they often have to carefully spend time removing dirt from artifacts that may not be worth much of anything individually. Still, their collective work has inspired our imaginations and helped create countless fantasy works, as well as many lively discussions about the ancient past. 

That work has also given us a window into what we know to be true about these ancient civilizations, and also what we have come to suspect could be true based on archaeological evidence. Let’s take a look at some of the most fascinating theories of historical cultures, based on what’s been gathered by these curators of the past…

10. The Aztecs Sacrificed Countless People Due To A Protein Shortage

It’s pretty widely known that Aztec people took part in cannibalism during their human sacrifices, but it was anthropologist Michael Harner who put forth a controversial theory in an attempt to further explain the “why” behind their religious ideology. The theory goes that their population was booming, but at the same time, the available game for protein was decreasing. Getting all eight essential amino acids and protein from maize and beans would require large quantities of food, making it relatively impractical. He also cited times of famine where even nobles sold their children into slavery to buy food and suggested the poor class could fight in wars to get POWs so they could cannibalize them in a blood ritual and eat them for protein.  

Of course, there’s a competing theory by anthropologist and historian Bernard Ortiz De Montellano who argues that the rituals where cannibalism occurred were nearly always done at harvest time, as part of a celebration, and not during times of famine. Further, the cities where these blood sacrifices were known to take place were the bigger cities that received food tributes and weren’t particularly worried about food, even in general times of famine. Montellano argues that sacrificial victims’ bodies were sacred and that the reason for ingesting the body was to ingest a part of the gods themselves and was never connected in any official literature to protein deficiency. 

9. The City Of Pavlopetri Was The Fabled Lost City Of Atlantis

In 2009, a group of Anglo-Greek marine geologists and archaeologists went to work to survey a promising area off the Southern Peloponnese that more primitive technology had suggested was a hotspot for discovery some 40 years earlier, and they made an amazing discovery. They found the ruins of an ancient city, mostly intact, that had sunk beneath the sea floor about 5,000 years ago, during the days of Homer’s epic legends. 

The researchers believe it could have sunk due to a tsunami, earthquake, or both, somewhere around 1000 BC, leaving it resting below the waves for future discovery. While mapping it with modern digital technology they discovered 9,000 square meters of new buildings, and a very large Megaron, which was a structure used by elites for public gatherings, suggesting the city was used by important members of Mycenaean society. Due to the time period to which the city is dated, how quickly it disappeared beneath the waters, and the potential elite status of its inhabitants, some have suggested it could have been the fabled lost city of Atlantis. 

8. Noah’s Story Was An Allegory For Survivors Of A Really Bad Local Flood

Even those who aren’t Christian are well aware of the story of Noah’s Ark, and his quest to save two of every animal from a great flood that would encompass the entire earth. But Noah’s was not the only similar story. The epic of Gilgamesh, the Qur’an, and many others have a story of an all-encompassing flood in which people had to go to great lengths, often using boats to survive. Now, while stories about bad local floods, or even allegorical stories of worldwide floods, are not confined to one area, there is a very large concentration of them coming from Ancient Mesopotamia — which is now modern-day Iraq. 

This has caused researchers to consider whether the stories could have been allegories about a really bad local flood. While the geological record of the earth does not support a global flood, the geological record of Iraq does support the possibility of a bad flood, or even floods, back in the days of Ancient Mesopotamia. This flood (or floods) could have drowned many, destroyed their homes, and taken months to properly recede due to the geography of the area. With no internet or telephones to check outside their area, and all their known geography flooded, they wrote stories of the entire world being lost beneath a catastrophic deluge because as far as they knew, their entire world was flooded.

7. Contrary To Recent Popular Belief, Some Christians May Have Been Thrown To Lions

It used to be accepted that Christians, and many other malcontents, were thrown to the lions during the days of the Romans and it was believed to be a fact. Now, many historians and debunkers have told you that it isn’t true and that there is not a single corroborating text that states Christians were thrown to lions. However, the Romans didn’t always keep the best records. 

During the early era of the Christian Church, when many Christians were being executed, throwing people to the beasts was a popular method of execution. This method involved all kinds of animals including lions, and one text tells of a Priest called Saturas, whom they first tried to kill with a boar, then with a bear, and then finally finished off with a leopard. As for the crueler Roman Emperors, Nero was known to cover Christians in animal skins before throwing them to the dogs. Now, as we stated, there is no extant evidence of lion-on-Christian action, but considering how popular it was to throw people to the animals, it would seem more like a bizarre accident than anything if they never got their chance to sink their teeth into any early Christian flesh. 

6. Spartan Warriors Were Not That Amazing, It Was Mostly Propaganda

The Spartan reputation today is such that many still see them as the epitome of the most fearsome and powerful warrior. However, the truth is that much of what we think about the Spartans may have been nothing more than propaganda by the Greek historian Herodotus, and much of it from the Spartans themselves.

The Spartan state had a population of slaves known as helots that consisted, at any given time, of a much larger percentage of the population than the free Spartans themselves, and the Spartans felt fear was a good way to keep people in line, which only worked for a time as the helots did ultimately successfully rebel.

Now, when it comes to the facts, the Spartan won-loss record in battle was a little under 50%, which for warriors with such a reputation, is pretty bad. There is still some reason to believe that Spartans had slightly better unit organization and that many of their regular troops were slightly above the regular Greek average in terms of skill, but not to any amazing level. Further, individual skill only mattered for so much, as most battles back then consisted mainly of forming into a phalanx and smashing your soldiers into your enemy counterparts.

5. Scientists Have New Evidence Of City-States Dotting The Maya Lowlands

Back in 2016, surveyors flew over the area that once comprised the Ancient Maya Empire, and used laser imaging to map 830 square miles of the ruins — which is an area larger than the island of Maui. When the surveyors looked at the results, it proved a theory that had fallen out of favor and took their breath away. Many archaeologists had theorized that the Maya, who had an extensive economic and social system, had interconnected city-states dotted throughout the Maya Lowlands. But that theory had started to fall out of favor for lack of direct evidence. 

However, this laser imaging changed everything, and in one fell swoop revealed over 60,000 new potential sites of interest. These included 60 miles of causeways, roads, and canals to connect cities, large maize farms, houses of all sizes, and even defensive fortifications that suggested they had come under attack from the Western edges of their borders. All in all, it has given researchers a wealth of new Maya ruins to explore, and reminded us all just how advanced many ancient civilizations were. 

4. Are The Hanging Gardens Of Babylon Myth, Or Were We Looking In The Wrong Place?

The ancient stories tell of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, built by King Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife Amytis, because she missed the lush gardens of her native lands. They were said to have flowing waterfalls and all types of vegetation, with wonderful aromas of various plants wafting through the air — a magical oasis, in the middle of the desert. Now, the problem is that no evidence has ever been found in the site where Babylon once lay, and all records about it are after-the-fact stories, so some historians have started to believe it is nothing more than a historical mirage in the desert. 

However, Dr. Stephanie Dalley, a research fellow at the Oriental Institute of England’s Oxford University, believes that the only reason we have not found evidence of its existence is because we are looking in the wrong place. According to Dr. Dalley, who is an expert at reading ancient Mesopotamian texts, the Hanging Gardens were actually built in nearby Nineveh by King Sennacherib. Now, this is something that archaeological evidence backs up, as the ruins of Nineveh (Mosul in modern-day Iraq) have remnants of an aqueduct system, artwork depicting lush, hanging gardens, and an inscription from Sennacherib bragging about how he had managed to bring water a long distance. 

3. Homer’s Epics Iliad And Odyssey Were First Written Down By A Woman

Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey combine to create one of the greatest epics of all time, but for all the cultural importance they have had over the years, we know precious little about their actual origination. This is largely because Homer remains a pretty big mystery to historians, other than his being an ancient bard who didn’t actually put pen to paper himself. That second part is quite normal, of course, as most Ancient Greek legends were passed down through oral storytelling and embellished over time. 

The bigger question for many historians is who really transcribed them. Andrew Dalby, the author of “Rediscovering Homer” suggests that it was a woman who finally recorded the stories for posterity. He theorizes that because being a public poet and getting to put on a live performance was a male’s job, they wouldn’t want to give up that position for a long slog writing down a poetic epic, especially since it was unlikely to net them much of a return. He suggests that a rich backer, who would have had to buy all the necessary goatskin, had a woman pen the epics anonymously. 

2. Permanent Human Settlements May Have Predated Ancient Agriculture

One of the most commonly accepted pieces of wisdom when it comes to the rise of human civilization, is that humans only formed communities after they created agriculture, which they did as a necessity. In other words, the human community only exists because we had to stop being nomadic hunter-gatherer raiders who clubbed each other to death over territory, and settle down and grow food instead. However, recent evidence has not only put that theory into question but almost entirely overturned it, at least as any kind of absolute truth. Archaeologists have found evidence of permanent human settlements from hunter-gatherer tribes in the area that is now Israel and Jordan, some dating as far back as 14,000 years ago. 

This suggests that the idea that humans could only come together and stop being loosely connected tribes of a few nomadic hunters (at best) when they had no choice but to work together is nothing more than hokum. Humans are social creatures who generally like being around other humans, and would want to have their company to enjoy whether they needed that arrangement for efficient resource management or not. 

1. Ancient Native Americans Burned Down Many Trees In The Plains States

If you’ve ever visited the area, you might wonder why the Great Plains of the United States have so few trees. Many of the early settlers were so shocked by these long grasslands they were convinced that the plains would be a bad place to grow crops, and often made dangerous trips up to Oregon instead.

The truth is, long before European settlers came to the continent, there is reason to believe the Great Plains were once covered in forestland. As to how most of it disappeared, multiple potential explanations have been put forth. The area, while still getting a lot of rain, has more of a chance to experience temporary drought than many surrounding areas, gets hit by a lot of lightning strikes, which can cause fires, and the Native Americans were known to burn down trees to create land better for grazing for game animals. 

What we don’t know is how much effect the Native Americans’ burning had, as we have no idea how sophisticated their methods were. We also don’t know how big an offender lightning strikes may have been, creating fires that could race across the landscape at speeds of 15-20 kilometers per hour. Either way, the landscape was irreparably altered, and we can only imagine what it once looked like.

There are underwater ruins almost everywhere around the world. However, some stand out more than others due to the suggestion that they might prove lost civilizations existed in the deep past. And, in turn, might even suggest some truth in the many flood myths that also exist around the planet.
Many of these aquatic ruins feature huge megalithic structures, many of which appear to have an intelligent design behind them. Other locations even feature inscriptions of strange symbols and letters in unknown languages. Given that we know very little of what lies beneath the oceans and seas of our planet, who knows what might be awaiting discovery under the still unexplored ocean floors.

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10 Underwater Step-Pyramid Off The Coast Of Yonaguni Jima In Japan?

Perhaps the first name connected to the underwater ruins at Yonaguni Jima^[1] off the coast of Japan is Masaaki Kimura. The marine geologist has spent almost two decades studying the ruins. According to Kimura, there are clearly several artificial structures below the waves in the region. One of these even appears to be a “complicated, monolithic, stepped pyramid”. And what’s more, this particular building is over 80 feet tall.

Initially, Kimura would claim that the remains were likely evidence of Mu – an apparently lost continent in the Pacific. He would even claim the dates of ruins to be around 10,000 years old placing them around 8000 BC. He would, however, eventually revise these dates to around between 5000 to 3000 years old.

Despite the revised estimate of the age, though, some researchers remain supportive of the initial estimation. Perhaps most notable of these is Graham Hancock. Hancock has also written of such ruins, most extensively in his book Underworld.

We should also state that not everyone is even convinced the ruins are artificial structures at all. Boston University’s Robert Schoch, for example, would state in 2007 that the remains were most likely “all-natural”. Further study and investigation will likely continue at the site. As will the debate as to what the real truth behind it is.

9 Bimini Road In The Bahamas – A Lost Road To Atlantis?

The remains found off the island of Bimini in the Bahamas referred to as Bimini Road,^[2] are certainly intriguing. And are of interest to researchers in both the mainstream and the fringes. Many outside of mainstream research point to the road-like structure and potential buildings as perhaps the best proof of the existence of Atlantis.

The ruins were discovered in 1968 by Joseph Mason Valentine. Upon diving in the crystal-clear waters, he made out what was quickly apparent to him to be a paved roadway running along the seabed. He returned to the waters several times. Each time he discovered further potential outlines of more artificial ruins around the apparent roadway.

The conclusion of carbon dating and research of mainstream scientists is that the road is, in fact, a creation of the natural geological forces of the area. Other researchers, though, point to the area as clearly artificial and with further secrets to reveal.

We might also mention the claims of Ray Brown. He claimed to have found evidence of a sunken pyramid in the region near Berry Island. He made the discovery while hunting for sunken galleons. What made the find even more intriguing, are his claims that his navigation equipment began to suddenly malfunction right before he noticed the pyramid.

8 The Apparent Temples Off The Coast Of Malta

Another location often spoken of with Atlantis can be found^[3] off the coast of Malta. The discovery of the underwater temples of Gebel Gol-Bahar took place in the summer of 1999. What perhaps makes the location intriguing is that the person who made the find is a retired businessman and not a scientist. Hubert Zeitmair found the remains around 2 to 3 miles off the coast of St. Julian’s. He is also, however, a follower of the writings of Zecharia Sitchin. And this is something which has led to many people dismissing his finds as “ancient astronaut” nonsense.

To date, no official dating or studies have been made of the ruins. However, many have managed to perform unofficial research. And this suggests that the remains could be many thousands of years old. And what’s more, it is likely, some claim, that the entire area was once inhabited before a major flood hit the region. Some researchers even go as far as to say the area was likely hit by the same flood mentioned in The Bible. Needless to say, almost all researchers in the mainstream dismiss such claims. Some even counter that the boulders and rocks are not at all ancient ruins. They are, in fact, likely the result of illegal dumps.

As well as the structures themselves, though, there also appears to be cart ruts. These run into the water and along the seabed. Cart ruts can also be found in multiple locations around Malta, and are, to some, further evidence of a location that was once not underwater. Furthermore, due to the location and the writings of Plato, many of those researchers suggest that the ruins could very well be those of Atlantis.

7 The Lost City Founded By Krishna, Dwarka, India

Without a doubt, one of the most fascinating locations of underwater ruins is the apparent^[4] lost city of Dwarka off the northwest coast of India. Not least as many of the ancient writings of the region are said to be accurate accounts as opposed to legends.

With these legends in mind, many researchers believe the ruins could very well be of the original city founded by Krishna. What’s more, although they are unofficial estimates, some researchers suggest that the city could be 9000 years old. If true, this would make the location 5000 years older than the currently oldest known ancient ruins.

The discovery came to light between 1999 and 2001. During that time the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) were surveying the region. And rather than murky lines, the remains are clearly those of temples, columns, and stepped buildings. Mainstream estimates suggest that the ruins could be between 4000 to 6000 years old. Other researchers, however, suggest the ruins to be anywhere between 9000 to 12000 years old. These dates would also match those of the alleged floods that are found in multiple creation stories around the world.

6 The Temples Of Mahabalipuram, India

The waters off the coast of south India are also of interest to those looking for underwater proof of lost civilizations. There, there is a continued search to prove that the apparent artificial structures^[5] in the region are the temples of Mahabalipuram.

The discovery of the apparent ruins came in 2001. A group of Tamil fishermen claimed to have seen artificial stone structures on the seabed. When official dives took place, it became clear to many that a sunken complex was likely awaiting full discovery. Among other things, they found the remains of walls and fallen pillars. This suggested, to some, a time when the region was very likely inhabitable. The discovery of the pillars, in particular, might suggest some truths to the myths of Seven Pagodas that were said to have once stood at the location.

Perhaps, if solid proof can be found that a lost civilization once resided in either Indian location, the two sites will corroborate each other.

Top 10 Last Unexplored Places

5 A Stonehenge-Like Structure Under Lake Michigan

Maybe one of the most intriguing locations of underwater ruins can be found under the waters of Lake Michigan. There, at an undisclosed location,^[6] a henge-like structure resides. The discovery was actually made by mistake by archeologists who were scanning the bottom of the lake in search of shipwrecks. However, when they saw their returns, they would find a clear henge-like structure on the lakebed.

What’s more, they would discover an interesting carving on a boulder of a mastodon. This further strengthened the notion of an ancient presence there before the region was covered with water. This would likely date to thousands of years before accepted records of humans are known to have existed there. Some rough estimates even suggest a date of anywhere between 10,000 to 12,000 years old.

Once more, this date would fit in nicely with the date often given for a global flood. Research continues quietly at the location today.

4 Strange Carvings And Discoveries Under Fuxian Lake, China

At around the same time as the discoveries off the coasts of India in 2001,^[7] similar intriguing finds were made under the water of Fuxian Lake in China. And what’s more, legends of a lost sunken ancient city in the region were well-known. The discovery came during a 20-day diving mission of the waters by scientists.

The research team found around 30 buildings in total. And these covered a rough distance of around 25 square kilometers. They did, however, only manage to fully examine and catalog two of the remains. Furthermore, they retrieved over 40 handmade stone relics, including tools, for further study. Even more intriguing, several carvings were discovered on large stones on the lakebed.

Subsequent research missions to the area have seemingly added credibility to the discovery. And although there is little information on who might have lived there, it has since been referred to as “China’s Atlantis”.

3 Port Royal, Jamaica

Port Royal in Jamaica is very much known to have existed – it sunk into the sea in the early 1900s. The location, however, is still of interest to those^[8] searching for proof of lost civilizations under the water. It offers, for example, details of how a city can sink below the water, relatively speaking, overnight. This allows researchers, in theory, to better understand how cities lost to the water thousands of years ago might have met their end.

The port itself came into existence in the 1490s when Spanish settlers formed it. It quickly became the largest city in the entire region. And many ships passing through used it as the main trading hub. By the 1600s, however, it had become a region known for vice and criminality. And more concerning, the main port of pirates from around the world.

In 1692, a huge earthquake, tsunami, and several hurricanes severely damaged the port. It remained active, but despite rebuild efforts, it never returned to its golden era. A further earthquake in 1907 essentially finished the city off, sinking it into the sea.

2 The Underwater City Of Pavlopetri, Greece

It would seem the oldest sunken city in the world resides off the coast of Greece in the^[9] lost city of Pavlopetri. Although it only became an official find in 2011, rumors of it have existed for decades. In fact, claims of the lost city go back to at least 1904 when geologist, Fokion Negri, spoke of seeing ruins in the region. It would be a further six decades before Dr. Nicholas Flemming appeared to prove Negri’s findings, though. Flemming, along with a team of scientists from Cambridge university, would all but confirm the evidence of a lost city.

The full-scale search of the region between 2009 and 2011 found around 15 buildings at a depth of around 10 to 12 feet. The estimated area of the lost city is thought to be a little over 2 acres. Further research suggests the region once also had a thriving textile industry. What’s more, it was likely once a major trading route in the region.

Whether the city might have existed for thousands of years before the estimated age of 5000 years old remains to be seen. It is certainly one of the most intriguing aquatic locations on the planet.

1 The Pyramid City Off The Coast Of Cuba?

Off the west coast of Cuba lies the remains of^[10] a city, with pyramids. And what’s more, the city in question could be as old as 6000 years. In fact, some theories even suggest an age as old as 50,000 years. The researchers who made the discovery, using sonar devices, discovered that some of the underwater stone structures are around 400 meters in width and 40 meters in height.

Rather than being natural formations, it is clear they are of intelligent design. And what’s more, they appear to sit in a planned formation. In short, the discovery appears to be evidence of a city that was at some point in the past overtaken by the waters. Also of interest, are the apparent “symbols and inscriptions” discovered on some of the stonework. Not least as it appears to be an unknown language. Basic research, however, does suggest similarities with Aztec and Mayan symbols.

Although further research is required, the discovery would perhaps vindicate the theories that a land bridge once connected Cuba with Mexico.

10 Things You Probably Don’t Know About The Lost City Of Atlantis

When you think of the Ancient world, you probably think of Egypt, Babylon, various Chinese dynasties, and of course Greece and Rome. But the Ancient world was a lot bigger, and longer lasting, than you might be aware. Let’s take a look at some of the other ancient peoples that deserve a lot more recognition than they typically get. 

10. Muisca Confederation

Located in modern-day Colombia, the Muisca Confederation was a group of chieftains in the central Andean highlands, active during the period leading up to the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century. Unlike centralized empires like the Incas, the Muisca didn’t have a single ruler but were rather a collection of various chiefdoms, each governed by its own chieftain, or “zipa.”

Economically, they were reknown for their expertise in metallurgy, especially in crafting intricate gold and tumbaga objects. This craftsmanship led to the legend of El Dorado, which you’re almost certainly more familiar with. It’s believed the legend was inspired by the Muisca ritual of the new zipa covering himself in gold dust and diving into Lake Guatavita, offering treasures to the gods.

Agriculture was also vital, as it was with everyone, with the Muisca cultivating crops such as maize, potatoes, and beans in terraced fields. They traded extensively with neighboring groups, making their lands an important regional hub. Sadly, with the arrival of the Spanish in the 1530s, the Muisca Confederation faced diseases, conquest, and cultural disruption. They weren’t the only ones to endure that, of course – but they never received as much attention as the Aztecs, Incas, or Mayans. 

9. Dilmun Civilization

The Dilmun Civilization is one of the ancient world’s more enigmatic and lesser-known cultures, flourishing between the 3rd and 1st millennia BCE. Often referred to as the “Land of the Living” in Sumerian writings, Dilmun was strategically situated along trade routes in the Persian Gulf, primarily corresponding to present-day Bahrain and parts of eastern Saudi Arabia.

Acting as a vital trade conduit between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, the Dilmun thrived on commerce and played a significant role in the distribution of goods such as copper, ivory, and precious stones. The civilization’s prosperity is evident in its cities, marked by well-planned urban centers, advanced irrigation systems, and impressive temples. Yet despite this, they’ve been largely swept under the rug while other ancient Middle Eastern civilizations are still referenced and studied. 

Religiously, Dilmun was considered sacred in the ancient Sumerian myth of Enki and Ninhursag, portraying it as a paradise where sickness and death were unknown. Additionally, archaeological evidence indicates that the region had extensive burial mounds, suggesting that Dilmun was a significant burial and ceremonial site for the broader region.

8. Elam

The Elamite civilization, simply known as Elam, was one of the earliest established cultures of the ancient Near East. Nestled primarily in what is present-day southwestern Iran, the history of Elam stretches back to around 3000 BCE, making it a contemporary of early Mesopotamian civilizations.

The Elamites had their own language, Elamite, but its origins and affiliations remain something of a mystery, as it’s strangely unrelated to surrounding Semitic and Indo-European languages. Over its long history, Elam had periods of power and prominence, especially during its conflicts and interactions with the neighboring Mesopotamian powers, such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians. They even succeeded in sacking the great city of Ur in 2004 BCE.

Although Elam faced numerous invasions and periods of domination by powers like the Assyrians and Persians, it always retained a degree of autonomy until it was ultimately absorbed into the Persian Empire. Still, despite this proud legacy and surprising accomplishments, there aren’t that many folks who’ve heard of them. 

7. Olmec Civilization

Often hailed as the “Mother Culture” of Mesoamerica, The Olmec civilization, emerged around 1400 BCE and thrived until around 400 BCE, in the tropical lowlands of what’s now Mexico. 

The Olmecs are probably more well known for their colossal stone heads than anything else —massive carved representations of human faces, believed (but not confirmed) to be portraits of rulers or significant individuals. These sculptures, some weighing up to 40 tons, showcase intricate craftsmanship and are a testament to the Olmec’s advanced stone-working skills.

Centers of Olmec culture included the cities of San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. Not unlike other ancient civilizations in the region, the Olmec built their cities around ceremonial centers, pyramidal structures, and surprisingly complex urban planning. Besides their architectural accomplishments, the Olmec are also notable for their contributions to the Mesoamerican calendar, writing system, and the concept of the number zero. Their religious beliefs, involving a pantheon of gods associated with natural elements and jaguars, heavily influenced the Mayan and Aztec religions that followed.

While the reasons for the Olmec civilization’s decline remain a subject of debate among scholars, their influence persisted. But they deserve more attention than they often get. 

6. Norte Chico Civilization

Also known as the Caral-Supe civilization, the Norte Chico civilization stands as one of the earliest and most enigmatic of ancient cultures in the Americas. Emerging around 3000 BCE and flourishing until 1800 BCE in areas of what’s now Peru, they predate the Olmec of Mesoamerica, making it the single oldest known civilization in the Americas. 

Remarkably, the Norte Chico achieved its civilizational status without the presence of ceramics, which are often associated with ancient societies. That’s impressive enough, but, they’re also notable for substantial architectural prowess, most notably their step pyramids and sunken circular plazas. The city of Caral is the most studied and is often referred to as the “oldest city in the New World.” 

One of the most intriguing aspects of the Norte Chico civilization is its reliance on maritime resources. Instead of depending primarily on agriculture, like many of their peers, they took maximum advantage of the nearby eastern Pacific. 

We’re still not sure why the Norte Chico civilization declined. But we do know they laid foundational cultural practices that influenced the subsequent Andean cultures that are more widely known, like the Moche and Inca.

5. Hittite Empire

The Hittites, an ancient Anatolian people, emerged as a dominant power in the Middle East around 1600 BCE, establishing an empire that spanned throughout modern-day Turkey and northern Syria. Their influence would last until roughly 1200 BCE. But despite that, you probably know a lot less about them than you do about contemporary empires like Egypt. 

The Hittite capital, Hattusa, located near modern-day Bo?azkale in Turkey, was a sprawling city with grand temples, palaces, and impressive fortifications. The city stands as a testament to their architectural and urban planning skills. But the empire’s strength wasn’t just architectural; they had an organized and efficient bureaucracy, as well as a robust legal system with laws that were actually pretty progressive for their time, covering a range of issues from inheritance and divorce and consumer protection.

Militarily, the Hittites are particularly renowned for their chariots, which played a crucial role in their confrontations with neighboring states. The most famous of these conflicts was the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE against the Egyptians under Pharaoh Ramses II. While both sides claimed victory, the battle’s aftermath led to one of the earliest known peace treaties in history, signifying a truce between the two superpowers.

The decline of the Hittite Empire around 1200 BCE is part of a larger, mysterious collapse that affected several ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean and Near East. Despite their decline, the Hittites left an indelible mark on the region’s history and deserve to be remembered. 

4. Nok Culture

Named after the village of Nok in Nigeria, where the first artifacts from this civilization were discovered in the 1920s, the Nok Culture is West Africa’s earliest known ancient civilization. Flourishing between 1500 BCE and 300 CE, they’re primarily known for their distinctive terracotta figurines, which stand as some of the earliest and finest examples of sculpture in Sub-Saharan Africa. These terracotta sculptures are diverse in representation, ranging from humanoid figures with intricate details, like beads, scarification, and elaborate hairstyles, to various animals. The purpose of these figurines is still a subject of debate among archaeologists. While some suggest they had ritualistic or religious significance, others propose they might have been used as charms or status symbols.

Beyond their artistry, there’s evidence they were smelting iron long before many other cultures in the surrounding region. This had profound implications, not only for agriculture and warfare but also for various societal advancements. Despite that advantage, the Nok disappeared abruptly around 300 CE for reasons that remain unclear.  And as evidenced by their inclusion on this list, they’re largely forgotten since then.

3. Caral-Supe Civilization

The Caral-Supe civilization, often just referred to as Caral, holds the distinction of being the oldest known civilization in the Americas. Situated in the Supe Valley of modern-day Peru, it dates all the way back to around 3000 BCE, flourishing until roughly 1800 BCE. This places its rise well before other pre-Columbian cultures in the region, and it’s contemporary to ancient civilizations like Ancient Egypt and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia.

At the heart of the Caral-Supe civilization is the city of Caral, a sprawling urban center that showcases advanced city planning, impressive pyramidal architecture, and sunken circular plazas. As was the case with many ancient civilizations in the Americas, the city was dominated by a towering pyramid, covering an area nearly equivalent to four football fields. 

What’s especially intriguing about Caral is its apparent lack of warfare-related artifacts. No weapons or fortifications have been found, suggesting a peaceful society that perhaps prioritized trade and religion. Instead of warfare, it appears that their society revolved around agriculture, with evidence of irrigation systems and cultivation of crops like cotton, beans, and squash. Despite that, they lasted for more than a millennium. 

2. Aksumite Empire

The Aksumite Empire, often simply referred to as Aksum, was a formidable trading empire that rose to prominence in the Horn of Africa around the 1st century CE and maintained its power until the 10th century CE. Its heartland was in present-day northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, and at its zenith, its influence extended across parts of Sudan, Yemen, and even southern Arabia.

One of the significant markers of the Aksumite Empire was its impressive architectural achievements, most notably the stelae – tall, carved stone pillars, some of which are the largest single pieces of stone ever quarried in the ancient world. If that wasn’t impressive enough, they managed to position themselves as a crucial trading hub, linking the Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire with India and the Far East. It was through these trade networks that Aksum amassed its considerable wealth, trading goods like ivory, gold, frankincense, and myrrh.

Here’s another interesting note: the Aksumite Empire holds a special place in history as one of the first major empires to adopt Christianity. They didn’t last forever, but they left a huge imprint on subsequent cultures. 

1. Xiongnu Confederation

The Xiongnu Confederation was a powerful nomadic empire that emerged around the 3rd century BCE in the steppes of Central and Eastern Asia, roughly spanning areas of modern-day Mongolia, southern Siberia, and parts of northern China. This meant that contact, and conflict, with the Han Dynasty of China, was inevitable. Their wars played a pivotal role in shaping the political and military dynamics of the region at the time. 

Interestingly, these battles saw the Great Wall of China being fortified and extended to defend against Xiongnu raids. The Han Dynasty, seeking both military and diplomatic solutions, also established the famous Silk Road trade routes in part to facilitate relations with the Western regions and to form alliances against the Xiongnu.

So despite being relatively unknown today, the Xiongnu were directly involved in the formation of two of the most iconic symbols of ancient Asia.

Despite their strength and vast territorial control, though, the Xiongnu Confederation eventually faced internal divisions and external pressures, and by the late 1st century CE had split into northern and southern halves. Over time, they were assimilated into other tribal groups or subdued by emerging powers in the region.

The word “civilization” is open to interpretation, but archaeologists usually refer to ancient civilizations as human societies “with a high level of cultural and technological development.”^[1] Although the Aboriginal people of Australia, for example, are commonly believed to be the oldest continuous culture to inhabit the earth, their nomadic habits and lack of infrastructure usually means that they are not counted as a civilization. This is open to much debate.

Most people have heard about the ancient Egyptians, the Aztecs, and the Incas. But there are many more ancient civilizations that are not so well-known but which have left behind tantalizing glimpses into an older and very different way of life. Here are just a few of them.

10 Indus Valley Civilization
3300–1300 BC

The Indus Valley Civilization was located in an area that spans parts of modern-day Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India, on the plains near the Indus River. Archaeologists have discovered evidence of farming communities as well as entire cities.

Two prominent cities that have been excavated are Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. They found that many of the houses had their own wells and bathrooms, along with a sophisticated underground drainage system. Documents found in Sumeria recorded commercial, religious, and artistic events happening in these areas and described their “exotic wares.”

The Indus Valley people had a writing system, but to date, attempts to decipher examples of their writing, found on pottery and copper tablets, have failed.

It is not yet clear whether the Indus Valley was a civilization in itself or whether it formed part of a larger kingdom. It would be likely that if it was part of a larger kingdom, artifacts would have been found showing this—statues of known kings, for example, or depictions of wars, but to date, no such articles have been found.^[2]

It is entirely possible that the Indus River people were an isolated civilization with their own language and lifestyle, which is only now being uncovered. One of the many structures uncovered is the Great Bath at Mohenjo Daro, measuring 83 square meters (897 ft²), which is believed to have been used for ritual bathing.

The reason for the decline of the civilization is unclear. Historians have developed a number of possible theories, including the drying up of the river or, alternatively, flooding, trade difficulties with Mesopotamia, or invasion by an unknown enemy.

9 The Kingdom Of Aksum
AD 100–940

Aksum was a kingdom in what is now Northern Ethiopia. It was a society of power and influence, and at its height, it extended from the edge of the Sahara in the west to the Arabian desert in the east.^[3]

Aksumites developed their own written script, Ge’ez, and traded with other nations across the Eastern Mediterranean. It was described by a Persian writer as one of the four greatest powers in the world. Despite this, comparatively little is known of Aksum today, and it is generally held to be a “lost” civilization. It is believed that the society was an ordered one, based on a hierarchy of kings and noblemen.

In the fourth century AD, Aksum embraced Orthodox Christianity. The king had been converted by a former Syrian prisoner, who was later made bishop of Aksum

Aksum has been claimed as the birthplace of the Queen of Sheba and the home of the Ark of the Covenant. The ark was said to have been taken by Menelik I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon, and brought home, where it resides in a local church. (No one is allowed to see it, so who knows?)

8 Konar Sandal
4500–3000 BC

Konar Sandal is located in Jiroft, a city in the southern part of Iran. In 2002, a ziggurat (a terraced temple complex) was discovered, one of the largest and oldest of its kind in the world. To date, two mounds have been excavated at Konar Sandal, and finds have included a large two-story building with very thick walls, suggesting that they formed some type of fortification.

The discovery of the ziggurat strongly suggests a structured civilization based on ritual and belief. It is believed to date to around 2200 BC and was possibly built by the Aratta, a Bronze Age kingdom which had been described in Sumerian texts but whose whereabouts have not been discovered. The head of the archaeological excavation described the site as an “independent, autochthonous Bronze Age civilization with its own architecture and language.”^[4]

The site has been subject to looting and unauthorized excavations, and it is not known how many treasures have been lost. Despite this, it is thought that the civilization may provide evidence of the oldest written language in the world.

Work is ongoing, and as the site contains evidence of religious, domestic, agricultural, and industrial dwellings, it is hoped that there is much more still to find.

7 Sanliurfa, Turkey

Sanliurfa, in modern-day Turkey, originally named Urfa, has a long and checkered history, with many religions claiming an affinity with the area. It boasts a number of interesting archaeological features, such as a cave said to be the birthplace of the Prophet Abraham. It was considered to be a major center of Syrian culture.

Situated very near Sanliura is Gobekli Tepe, where megalithic carved stones were cut and arranged before the known invention of metal tools—and 6,000 years before Stonehenge came into existence. Gobekli Tepe may be the site of the world’s oldest temple.^[5]

The stones, up to 5 meters (16 ft) tall, are arranged in circles, and each weigh between 7 and 10 tons. The largest circle measures 20 meters (65 ft) in diameter, and some of the stones are carved with carved with images of creatures such as foxes, lions, scorpions, and vultures.

It is thought that people would have traveled from Urfa to the temple of Gobekli Tepe for religious ceremonies, though to date, no evidence has been found to show what this involved. Surveys of the area suggest that there may be as many as 16 similar circles. Unfortunately, in 2018, inexpert conservation work damaged parts of the site when concrete was poured over it.

6 Vinca Civilization
5000–3500 BC

The Vinca Civilization (aka the Danube Valley Civilization) boasts what some believe to be one of the earliest writing systems in the world, with around 700 characters, most of which have been found carved in pottery. Although the language has not been translated, it is believed by those who think it is a language to contain a form of numbers as well as letters. Their advanced farming system made it one of the most sophisticated Neolithic cultures we know of.^[6]

Evidence of the Vinca Civilization has been found along the banks of the Danube River and is thought to have existed long before the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt.

The first archaeological evidence was discovered in 1908 at Belo Brdo Hill near Belgrade. The settlements are thought to have lasted more than 1,000 years before being abandoned. Each settlement housed a few thousand people, in homes made of wattle and daub clay. They kept animals and grew crops and even had a type of plow for sewing cereals. Evidence has also been found of copper utensils, around 1,000 years before their general use in Europe.

At a necropolis near Varna, the “Varna Gold Treasure” was discovered. Dating between to around 6,500 years old, it is possibly the oldest gold smithy in the world. It is not known why the Vinca Civilization vanished, but when they did, they seem to have taken their knowledge and their innovations with them.

5 Aryan Kingdom
1500 BC

Around 1500 BC, a large group of nomads, possibly including the remnants of the Indus Valley Civilization, moved into India. It is unclear whether this mass migration was a result of fleeing from a natural disaster or whether it was, in fact, an invasion.

Whatever the cause, a new civilization was born on the Indian subcontinent. The Aryan language developed, and the new settlers developed agriculture. The Aryan civilization was widely established by around 1000 BC.^[7] (Note that the name “Aryan” comes from the Sanskrit word arya, which is what these migrants to India referred to themselves as.)

Today, there is little historical record of this civilization, though it is mentioned in the Vedas—a collection of religious texts—with tales of war and other conflicts. However, there is no way of knowing how accurate these texts are. There are few remaining artifacts of the period, though archaeological research is ongoing.

4 Mehrgarh
7000 BC

In 1974, excavations began at Mehrgarh in Pakistan, but a lack of government interest, erosion of the land, and chronic looting of the site has kept Mehrgarh a relatively hidden civilization. Additionally, archaeological digs have been made more difficult by ongoing tribal feuds and lax security for the diggers.

That’s a shame, because Mehrgarh is one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Those artifacts that weren’t pinched show a highly developed society with established trade links with different regions. It is believed to have been in existence around 7000 BC, thousands of years before the Indus Valley Civilization in the same region.^[8]

Mehrgarh is thought to have had a population of around 25,000, and evidence of daily life there is still being discovered, including indications of dental surgery. Many of the remains are buried deep in the ground, and uncovering them poses as challenge. Remains excavated so far include a complex of well-preserved buildings made from mud bricks and even a formal cemetery.

3 Nineveh
6000—612 BC

Nineveh (modern-day Mosul in Iraq), was the site of one of the oldest and greatest civilizations. The early city was damaged in a series earthquakes, including the destruction of the first temple of Ishtar, but the city continued to grow. King Sennacherib (704–681 BC) made Nineveh the capital of the Assyrian Empire, building a 15-gate great wall around the city as well as parks, aqueducts, canals, and an 80-room palace, which, being a modest man, he proclaimed a “palace without rival.” Some scholars believe that the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually located in Nineveh and commissioned by the king.^[9]

A library was constructed, containing over 30,000 inscribed clay tablets, an enormous number of works for the time. Scholars and scribes flocked to the city, and it became a center for the development of the arts, sciences, and architecture. One of the most unusual tablets found at the site told the story of a great flood which drowned the whole world and a man who survived by building a boat and who released a dove in search of dry land. This version of the Noah’s Ark story was part of an epic poem written in 1800 BC, 1,000 years before it was included in the Hebrew Bible. Much of the contents of Nineveh’s library now lie in the vaults of the British Library.

A royal feud in 627 BC led to the breakup of the Assyrian Empire, and in 612 BC, Nineveh was burned to the ground by a combined force of Persians, Babylonians, and others, who divided the region between them, allowing the grand buildings to fall into ruin. The ruins began to be excavated in 1846, and work has continued to the present day, though it has suffered during recent unrest and been damaged by vandalism.

2 Nubia

Nubia, which lay to the south of Egypt in Sudan, was a civilization that once ruled Egypt. Nubia had its own pyramids; the remains of 223 can still be seen today. Ancient Egypt’s 25th Dynasty, also known as the Black Dynasty because of the dark skin of the Nubian pharaohs, was a period of stability and prosperity, with much emphasis on culture and the arts.^[10]

The kingdom had its own written language and culture, and the region was rich in gold. Nubia had their own symbols of kingship, but their influence was over when Pharaoh Sneferu raided Nubia and established it as an outpost for mineral extraction. Far from being a land of status, it became a region of Egypt under the pharaoh’s control.

The Nubian people largely assimilated into the Egyptian population, though archaeological evidence of their civilization remains. Like the Egyptians, they favored carved images of themselves, though they did, at times, like to portray themselves as overweight.

To each his own.

1 Norte Chico Civilization
3500–1800 BC

The Norte Chico Civilization is one of mystery. To date, very little is known about this pre-Columbian society in Peru, which is possibly the oldest known civilization in the Americas.

Evidence of huge constructions, including pyramids, and the remains of complex irrigation systems have been found, but there is little to show how people lived their daily lives. To date, six pyramids have been discovered, the largest of which is known as Piramide Mayor. Though not as elaborate as the later Inca architecture, the pyramids were still complex structures.

Norte Chico settlements were situated north of modern-day Lima. It is interesting that Norte Chico is one of the few civilizations at that time which did not appear to know how to make pottery, as there have been no such artifacts discovered at the sites. It is believed that they used gourds instead, which would have been of limited use in cooking food.^[11]

To date, few examples of art or decoration have been found on their artifacts, though there does seem to have been some belief in a deity, though it is not possible as yet to say what form their beliefs took.

The settlements were abandoned sometime around 1800 BC, but it is not yet clear why. There is no evidence that they were ever involved in war or conflict, nor that they were hit by a natural disaster. The settlements were centered around three main rivers, so it it possible that a prolonged drought caused the population to migrate elsewhere, but this cannot be proved.

So the mystery remains.

Ward Hazell is a writer who travels, and an occasional travel writer.

While there’s no official definition of the term ‘Bronze Age’, it generally refers to the period between the Stone and Iron ages. It was a pivotal era in human history, as most early advances crucial for civilization – like writing and the wheel – were made during this time, thanks to prominent civilizations and cultures like the Sumerians, Assyrians, Akkadians, and many others. It wasn’t all happy times, either, as the Bronze Age also gave birth to powerful armies backed by newfound metal weapons and military tactics. 

10. Nuragic Civilization

The Nuragic civilization on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia originated from prehistoric Neolithic settlements around 7000-1600 BC. It was an indigenous, autonomous culture that we know little about due to their lack of written language, though we know that the island had a history of human settlement thousands of years before that.

A characteristic feature of the Nuragic civilization was their construction of nuraghi towers – circular stone structures that could reach heights of over 90 feet. We don’t exactly know what they were used for, though going by their shape and structure, they could have been homes, fortresses, or even observatories. 

Their eventual decline has been attributed to various possible factors, including foreign invasions, changing ecosystems, and technological advances in nearby regions that rendered Nuragic technology obsolete. 

9. Akkadian Empire

Also referred to as one of the first empires in history, the Akkadian Empire was an ancient Mesopotamian civilization founded around 2350 BC by an emperor called Sargon. It was a historical shift for the region, unifying the indigenous Akkadian-speaking Semites and Sumerian speakers under a single rule for the first time. At its peak, the Akkadian Empire controlled vast territories across ancient Mesopotamia, parts of Iran, and the Levant. 

Throughout this time, trade routes flourished across the region, connecting emerging markets with resources from places like Anatolia’s silver mines and Afghanistan’s lapis lazuli mines. All of this was supported by an interconnected network of agricultural farms in northern Mesopotamia, protected by a network of fortresses.

Ultimately, the empire fell to the Gutian invasion of 2150 BC, leading to a period of regional decline, famine, and drought across Mesopotamia. 

8. Canaan

Canaan refers to the historical region in the Levant region centered in modern-day Palestine, along with the territories of present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel. The origin of its name is still debated, with theories suggesting connections to the biblical grandson of Noah, the purple dye trade flourishing in the region at the time, or even philosophical concepts of order and chaos. Regardless of its name, however, there’s little doubt that it was a distinct civilization with its own culture. 

Archaeological evidence traces human settlement in the area all the way back to the Paleolithic Age, particularly around Jericho – one of the world’s oldest urban centers. Cities of Canaan began to flourish during the early Bronze Age, as Canaanites established trade routes with civilizations across the region, especially Egypt. Canaan was also one of the most-affected civilizations during the mysterious Bronze Age Collapse, directly leading to the rise of the Hebrews and the kingdoms of Israel and Judah.

7. Shang Dynasty

Modern historians recognize the Shang dynasty as the earliest confirmed Chinese dynasty based on documentary and archaeological evidence. It existed in the north-Chinese plains from around 1600 BC to 1046 BC, though its exact founding and ending dates vary among sources. The Dynasty is still remembered for its contributions to Bronze-Age Chinese civilization, especially in bronze craftsmanship that gave them a distinct strategic advantage in warfare.

The Shang’s origins could be traced back to the overthrow of the mythical Xia dynasty. Archaeological excavations at Anyang in present-day Henan Province have revealed numerous bones and bronze artifacts from the era. Thanks to that, we now know that the Shang society had a functioning, well-defined social hierarchy, with kings serving sacred, often-ritualistic roles while a council of advisers managed the kingdom’s day-to-day affairs.

6. New Kingdom Of Egypt

The New Kingdom of Egypt flourished from around 1550 to 1070 BC. It was a pivotal era in ancient-Egyptian history, marked by imperial expansion, memorable pharaoh kings, and cultural achievements that had an influence on many future civilizations around the world. This period is also sometimes called ‘Imperial Egypt’ due to its similarity to the empires of the future. 

The New Kingdom era gave birth to some of the most well-known Egyptian pharaohs today, including Hatshepsut, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II. It was also the first time the term ‘pharaoh’ was used to refer to Egyptian kings. It’s the most well-documented period of Egyptian history, thanks to literacy, foreign diplomacy, and trade relations that proliferated during this time. As Egypt interacted with other nations, written contracts, treaties, and letters between rulers became essential, resulting in the extensive written records from the period we can still access today. 

5. Oxus Civilization

The Oxus civilization – or the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, based on early terminology surrounding the research site in the former Soviet Union and Afghanistan – existed from around 2300 to 1700 BC. It was spread across a vast region spanning modern-day north Afghanistan, east Turkmenistan, south Uzbekistan, and west Tajikistan, predominantly along the upper Amu Darya or Oxus River. 

While we don’t know much about this civilization, we know that at its peak, the BMAC featured sprawling urban centers, fortified structures, advanced pottery, and sophisticated craftsmanship in tools and jewelry. It was primarily a desert society existing in the harsh climate of the Karakum Desert, as they relied on ancient oasis agriculture for sustenance. Despite these challenges, however, they developed extensive irrigation systems for wheat and barley cultivation and raised livestock on a large scale.

4. Minoan Civilization

Also sometimes referred to as one of the earliest Western European civilizations, the Minoan Civilization was a Middle Bronze Age culture founded sometime around 2000 BC on the Greek island of Crete. The Minoans were known for their unique art, architecture, and cultural influence across the Aegean, forming the basis for ancient Greece, Rome, and many more western civilizations to follow. 

The Minoan civilization featured elaborate palace complexes, vibrant, giant frescoes, intricate gold jewelry, and pottery made with advanced techniques for the time. The term ‘Minoan’ was coined by Sir Arthur Evans – an archaeologist that made groundbreaking discoveries at Knossos between 1900 and 1905, proving the existence of an advanced Cretan culture we didn’t know about until that time. Interestingly, the ruins showed no signs of military fortifications, suggesting a culture of relative peace among its communities. 

3. Gojoseon

While we don’t know exactly when it was founded, the Gojoseon dynasty had turned into an important early-Korean kingdom by the fourth century BC. According to some instances in Korean mythology, it was established in 2333 BCE by Dangun Wanggeom – a mythical king born from a god and a bear-turned-woman. While we’re not sure about the legitimacy of this claim, Dangun’s birthdate is still celebrated as National Foundation Day in South Korea.

Gojoseon is believed to have formed through alliances of small fortified towns in the Daedong and Liao River basins, likely beginning in the seventh century BC and solidifying around the fourth century BC. It marked an advanced cultural period in the early history of the Korean Peninsula, setting the stage for more centralized states in later periods. Still, many aspects of this society remain a mystery due to lack of records, like its precise status as a state, the location of its capital, and the true extent of its territorial power.

2. Assyrian Empire

Assyria was a major Semitic kingdom in the ancient Near East that existed as an independent state from about 2500 BC to 604 BC. Situated in the northern Mesopotamian region covering modern-day northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, and southeastern Turkey, it reached its peak during the Neo-Assyrian period from 911 BC to 612 BC, covering a vast territory from the Mediterranean to Persia, and from the Caucasus Mountains to Egypt. 

Assyria was an important Bronze Age civilization known for its technological advancements across the known world, including the use of bronze – and later iron – for weaponry and the development of an extensive road network. The Assyrian society was heavily militarized, with mandatory military service for free male citizens.

1. Sumer

Another strong contender for the earliest civilization in history, Sumer was founded between 4500 and 4000 BC in the southernmost region of Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It began with the arrival of the Ubaid people, bringing their knowledge of agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship – including metalwork, pottery, and weaving – with them. These advancements would give rise to one of the greatest and most-influential early civilizations – by 3300 BCE, the Sumerians had established themselves as the dominant culture in the region.

Sumer thrived as a collection of monarchist city states, including Uruk, Ur, and Nippur, with each city worshiping its own deity. The Sumerians were known for their contributions to language, notably the invention of cuneiform writing that allowed extensive record-keeping and the creation of the earliest known laws. Their art and architecture was also advanced for the time, with grand religious structures, ziggurats, and intricate sculptures found across the major cities of the civilization.

When someone does something outrageous, people often rush to use the phrase, “What is the world coming to?” But the fact of the matter is, human beings have always been weird. They were doing strange things long before you and I were born, and they will carry on being odd long after we are gone.

Archaeologists are constantly uncovering all kinds of bizarre artifacts and discoveries from the crazy civilizations of yore. Here are ten of the most ludicrous things they have found out about our absurd ancestors.

Related: 10 Intriguing Cases Involving Rare Ancient Art And Writing

10 The Cannabis Smokers of Ancient China

In the mountains of ancient China, more than 2,500 years ago, people smoked cannabis to get high. Archaeologists have found evidence of long-gone stoners during an excavation of Jirzankal Cemetery. Jirzankal is a historic burial place in the Pamir Mountains of Central Asia—an area now in China. Scientists studied incense burners from the site and found marijuana residue that they believe dates back centuries. The samples are rich in THC, the psychoactive substance found in weed.

Scientists found the residue on the pipes had a higher concentration of THC than the wild cannabis in the region. Researchers suspect that, in ancient times, locals would gather or even domesticate certain strains of cannabis for their mind-altering properties.

The excavation of Jirzankal threw up some interesting discoveries. Scientists analyzed the bones buried at the site and found that many of them were not native to the region. These immigrant remains support the theory that the Pamir Mountains used to be connected to an ancient Silk Road-type trade network. According to co-author Robert Spengler, this suggests that marijuana may have been exchanged along the pathway.^[1]

9 Peruvian Paint Contains Human Blood

Before the Incas, many civilizations lived in the area of South America we now know as Peru. For around 500 years, the Sicán culture occupied the region. Unfortunately, much of their history has since been erased, which means historians know relatively little about the ancient peoples.

In the 1990s, archaeologists uncovered a thousand-year-old Sicán tomb secreted under the Huaca Loro temple. The excavation turned up various bizarre objects, including an upside-down skeleton painted red and surrounded by the bodies of two women and two children, with a gold mask placed on the man’s disembodied skull.

The mask, just like his remains, had been painted red using cinnabar. Historians believe that the Sicáns only used the mineral for respected people. This suggests the skeleton was once someone of high status.

However, there was one mystery that left the scientists scratching their heads. How had the cinnabar stuck to the gold for such a long time? It took until 2021 for researchers at Oxford University to solve that conundrum. Infrared analysis revealed that the paint was bound using human blood and egg whites. Scientists believe that this had some cultural significance to the Sicáns, possibly something to do with reincarnation.^[2]

8 European Salt Miners Loved Beer and Blue Cheese

It doesn’t sound like the most pleasant job, analyzing the excrement of 2,700-year-old miners. But scientists have learned a lot about the diets of ancient workers in the salt mines of the Alps.

Human feces tend not to last very long before starting to decompose. The excreta found in the Alps were only preserved due to the cool, dry atmosphere and the high level of salt.

Microbiologist Frank Maixner was stunned to see that the miners had the knowledge and the ability to ferment their food. Maixner, who works at the Eurac Research Institute in Bolzano, Italy, described it as “very sophisticated.” Throw in some Buffalo wings, and they’d be ready for this century!^[3]

7 The Mysterious Mummies of the Silk Road

In the Tarim Basin, an area of desert in northwest China, lie hundreds of human corpses. The dry climate of the desert has preserved these bodies for thousands of years. The oldest is thought to date back to 2,000 BC, while the youngest arrived in AD 200.

Although they are buried in China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, only a short distance from the Silk Road, the Tarim Basin mummies look nothing like the locals. Instead, they have features that historians have described as “Western.” They were buried in boat-like wooden coffins, which were covered in cowhide. And evidence found at the site suggests they farmed sheep and goats, grew wheat and barley, and even made cheese.

For years the origins of these mummies have been something of a mystery. But in 2021, genetic analysis revealed that the oldest are directly descended from the Ancient North Eurasians, who lived in the vast plains of North Eurasia (Northern Steppe and Siberia) many thousands of years ago.^[4]

6 Remains Found of Non-Binary Finnish Leader

In 1968, archaeologists in Finland unearthed a 900-year-old grave containing a person in women’s clothing with a sword. They were lying on a soft feather blanket alongside other grave goods and furs, indicating they were likely a well-respected individual in the community. But scientists struggled to agree on the remains found within. Some argued that the body was that of a female warrior. Others disagreed, asserting that the tomb contained a man and a woman.

In 2021, over half a century after the grave was excavated, researchers finally learned the identity of the mysterious remains. DNA analysis revealed the body to be gender non-binary, meaning they were born with an unusual set of chromosomes.

Chromosomes play a vital role in determining the sex of a child. Girls are usually born with two X chromosomes, and boys with an X and a Y. But scientists believe the deceased Finn had two X chromosomes and one Y—a condition known as Klinefelter syndrome. People with Klinefelter syndrome generally have male characteristics, but many contend with low testosterone levels, enlarged breasts, and infertility.

As lead author Ulla Moilanen explained, “If the characteristics of the Klinefelter syndrome [had] been evident on the person, they might not have been considered strictly a female or a male in the early Middle Ages community.” ^[5]

5 Neanderthals Caught Birds with Their Bare Hands

Neanderthals were fascinating people. Scientists believed that prehistoric humans ate, among other things, raven-like birds known as choughs. But this led scientists to wonder how the primates caught their dinner without the help of modern technology. How do you chow down on a chough if all you have to catch it with is your bare hands?

To investigate further, a team of researchers decided to test it for themselves. Evolutionary ecologists from Estacion Biologica de Donana in Spain ventured into dim-lit caves and, without any tools to help them, managed to catch over 5,500 choughs. On a good night, the group could capture 200 birds. At other times, they only managed to grab a few dozen. All they needed to trap their feathered targets was a small source of light.

This might sound like something only a mad scientist would attempt, but the team says they found the experiment illuminating. Literally. Scientists now believe that Neanderthals could generate fire to light up their surroundings. It also points to them having had much higher cognitive abilities than we once thought.^[6]

4 Did Humans Hibernate During Winter?

Half a million years ago, our human-like ancestors would survive harsh winters by curling up in caves and hibernating. Or at least they might have, according to a 2020 research paper by two European paleoanthropologists. Fossil evidence suggests that our long-gone forebears used to lie dormant during the winter months, although scientists doubt they were any good at it.

Archaeologists have turned over at least 1,600 human fossils from the caves of Atapuerca in Spain. By studying bone structure and growth, the study’s authors determined how people lived at the time. Records indicate an annual drop in nutrition and vitamin D from the sun. Scientists say this suggests our ancestors possibly spent the winter in hibernation.^[4]

3 The Ancient Act of Exorcism

Deep in the British Museum lies a 3,500-year-old tablet. Drawn on it is what researchers believe to be the oldest ever depiction of a ghost, along with instructions on how to conduct an exorcism.

Dr. Irving Finkel, an expert in ancient civilizations, only discovered the image in 2021 on a tablet in one of the museum’s vaults. It shows, Finkel explains, a young man accompanying the ghost of a middle-aged woman back to the underworld. On the back are instructions for helping dead spirits out of the realm of the living.

The scribe recommends making two figurines, one male, one female. According to the tablet, they must be dressed and given various useful items, including a comb and a bed. The ritual involves waiting until sunrise to prepare two beer vessels and reciting an incantation to Shamash, the Mesopotamian god of the sun. The instructions end with one final piece of advice: “Do not look behind you.” ^[8]

2 The Iron Age Skiers of Norway

In the mountains of Norway, as the ice sheets melt away, strange discoveries rise to the surface. It was there that glacier archaeologists uncovered a remarkable pair of 1,300-year-old skis. The first of the two skis was found in 2014 on Digervarden Mountain in the southern county of Innlandet. The second turned up seven years later, only 5 meters (16 feet) from the first.

It took a lot of effort to free the second artifact from the ice. The team decided to return to Digervarden after spotting satellite images showing the receding ice sheets. Their first attempt to retrieve the ski left them empty-handed, but a mix of mild weather, pickaxes, and boiling water helped pry it loose.

This discovery is particularly noteworthy due to skis being in such astonishing condition. Secrets of the Ice, the treasure-hunting researchers who uncovered both skis, reckon they could be the best-preserved prehistoric skis ever seen.^[9]

1 The Prehistoric Origins of Genital Herpes

In 2017, scientists discovered the ancient human ancestor responsible for genital herpes. The genital herpes virus, also known as HSV2, dates back millions of years. It is a close relative of HSV1—the cold sore virus. For much of that time, genital herpes was only an issue for chimps and similar primates. Our ancestors were lucky enough that it did not affect them. But at some point in history, around 3 to 1.4 million years ago, the viral blisters jumped the species barrier and began infecting early humans as well.

Researchers in Britain used data modeling to pinpoint the primate that caused HSV2 to leap across species. It turns out the guilty party is Paranthropus boisei. They are a stocky, human-like species with small brains and dish-like faces. Scientists predict that these robust primates picked up the virus while scavenging for chimps to eat. At some point, early humans likely ate the infected P. boisei, at which point they would have started contracting genital herpes too.

“Herpes infect everything from humans to coral, with each species having its own specific set of viruses,” explained University of Cambridge researcher Dr. Charlotte Houldcroft. “For these viruses to jump species barriers, they need a lucky genetic mutation combined with a significant fluid exchange. In the case of early hominins, this means through consumption or intercourse—or possibly both.”^[10]

Believe it or not humanity could disappear in a couple of years. This will not be the first time that civilizations have disappeared from the face of the Earth. We know it has been caused by wars, climate change, disease, invasion, eruptions. Though most of the time the causes are large assumptions. Here are 10 mysterious lost civilizations that existed thousands of years ago.

10. The Clovis

Time: 11500 BC.

Location: North America

We do not know much about the Clovis culture, this prehistoric Native American culture is believed to have existed in North America. Its name comes from Clovis site, an archaeological site located near the town of Clovis, New Mexico. Artifacts found on this site in the 1920s consist of stone blades and bone.

It is believed that these people came from Siberia to Alaska across the Bering Strait by the end of the last ice age. Whether it was or not the first culture in North America no one knows. The Clovis culture has gone rather abruptly. Is it because they too hunted and destroyed their own food supply? Or is it because of climate change, disease or predators? Or did the members of this culture are simply dispersed to join other Native American tribes? Was the fall of a meteorite was the cause of their disappearance?

9. The Culture of Cucuteni-Trypillia

Time: Between 5500 and 2750 BC.

Location: Ukraine and Romania

The largest communities of Neolithic Europe were built by the Cucuteni-Trypilliens where there now lay Ukraine, Romania and Moldova.The civilization of Cucuteni-Trypillia had nearly 15 000 people – an enormous figure for the time that mysteriously disappeared from the surface of the Earth.

The culture of Cucuteni-Trypillia stands out for its pottery. They had this odd habit of burning their own villages every 60-80 years before building new one on the ashes of the old. To date we have identified around 3,000 archaeological sites from this matriarchal society centered around a mother goddess. Their disappearance might have been cause due to drastic climate change leading to worst droughts in European history. Other theories suggest people dispersed into various tribes.

8. The Civilization of the Indus Valley

Time: 3300-1300 BC.

Location: Pakistan

The civilization of the Indus Valley civilization is one of those huge lost civilizations that spread over an area that is now Pakistan and western India. It is one of the most important ancient civilizations. But little is known about them, mostly because nobody has ever deciphered their language. We know that the people built over a hundred towns and villages, including the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Each had its own sewage systems and indoor sanitation. It seems that this civilization without classes and without an army excelled in astronomy and agriculture. It was also the first civilization to manufacture cotton clothes.

This civilization disappeared 4,500 years ago and no one knew about it until the ruins were unearthed in the 1920s. Several theories attempt to explain this disappearance, such as changes in their environment like drying of the river Ghaggar Hakra, colder and drier temperatures. Another theory is that the Aryans invaded the region around 1500 BC.

7. Minoan Civilization

Time: 3000-630 BC.

Location: Crete

The Minoan civilization was not discovered until the early 20th century, but has since unearthed many clues about this fascinating civilization appeared that existed for about 7000 years and reached its peak around 1600 BC. Over the course of time, the cities and palaces were built and rebuilt becoming increasingly complex. One of these was that palaces of Knossos, the labyrinth associated with the legend of King Minos (from which the civilization gets its name). It is now an important archaeological center.

The first Minoans spoke a language called Linear A, replaced later by the linénaire B, both based on pictograms and still not deciphered today. It is believed that the Minoans were wiped out by a volcanic eruption on the island of Thera (Santorini today). There is evidence that they would have survived, had not the eruption killed all plant life. It caused a famine, and damaged their ships, which started the economic decline. Another hypothesis about this is that they were invaded by the Mycenaeans. The Minoan Civilization is one of the greatest lost civilizations that once existed.

6. The Mayan Civilization

Time: 2600 BC. AD to 1520 AD

Location: Central America

The Mayan Civilization is a classic example of a mysteriously vanished civilization. Its greatest monuments, its towns and roads were swallowed by the jungle of Central America and its population dispersed in small villages. Languages ​​and traditions of the Mayan people still survive today, but the climax of civilization occurred during the first millennium AD, when their greatest architectural monuments was built and rural Yucatan covered a wide area, which will aujourd ‘hui Mexico to Guatemala and Belize.

One of the greatest Mesoamerican lost civilizations, the Mayan used writing, mathematics, developed a calendar and sophisticated engineering to build its pyramids and terraced farms. The reason for the disappearance of this very advanced civilization is one of the great archaeological debates. It is assumed that infighting, combined with climate change in the Yucatan around the year 900, would have weakened crops and created a famine leading to the abandonment of cities.

5. The Mycenaean Civilization

Time: 1600-1100 BC.

Location: Greece

Unlike the Minoan, Mycenaean flourished not only through trade but also through conquest, to the point where their empire spanned nearly all of Greece. The Mycenaean civilization has experienced five centuries of dominating power before disappearing around 1100 BC. Several Greek myths are centered around this civilization, like that of the legendary King Agamemnon who led the Greek army during the Trojan War. The Mycenaean civilization was rich culturally and economically, and has left behind many artifacts. It is not clear why they disappeared: earthquake, invasions, or may be peasant revolts!

4. Olmec Civilization

Time: 1400 BC.

Location: Mexico

There once flourished the great pre-Columbian civilization of the Olmecs. The first traces of civilization dates back to 1400 BC. In the city of San Lorenzo, there is one of the three main centers of the Olmecs with Tenochtitlan and Potrero Nuevo.

The Olmecs were master builders. One found on these sites large monuments of giant stone heads. This civilization laid the foundation of all Mesoamerican cultures that followed. It is believed that the Olmecs were the first to develop a writing system, they would probably have invented the compass and the Mesoamerican calendar. They knew the use of bloodletting, did human sacrifices and invented the concept of the number zero. This civilization was not discovered by historians until the mid-19th century. Its decline occurred due to climate changes caused by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes or perhaps harmful agricultural practices.

3. The Nabataeans

Time: 600 BC.

Location: Jordan

The Nabataean civilization flourished in southern Jordan, Canaan region and northern Arabia from the 6th century BC. The Semitic people built the breathtaking city of Petra, carved into the sandstone cliffs of Jordan Mountains. We also know about their talents in hydraulics and their complex system of dams, canals and reservoirs that enabled them to grow in a desert region.

No written record has reached us and we know close to nothing of their culture. This however was a thriving civilization thanks to its geographical position which allowed them to create a network for the exchange of ivory, silk, spices, precious metals, precious stones, incense, sugar, perfume and medicines. Unlike other civilizations of the time, the Nabataeans were not aware of slavery and each contributed to the tasks of the city.

During the 4th century BC, the Nabataeans left Petra and no one knows why. Archaeological evidence shows that their departure was not rushed, which suggests that they have not fled before the invaders. It is believed that the northward migration occurred to find better work.

2. The Empire Of Aksum

Time: 100 AD. AD

Location: Ethiopia

The Axum Empire began establishing itself in the first century AD in the area where Ethiopia is now located. Legend has it that this is the birthplace of the Queen of Sheba. Aksum was an important trading center where we ivory exported, resources, agriculture and gold to the Roman Empire and to India. It was a rich society and the first African culture to issue its own currency, which at the time was a sign of great power.

The most distinctive monuments are his steles of Axum, gigantic carved obelisks playing the role of funeral terminals for kings and nobles. The first Aksumite worshiped many gods, the main one being Astar. Then, in 324, King Ezana II was converted to Christianity and became Axum therefore a fiercely Christian culture. According to local legend, a Jewish queen named Yodit defeated Aksumite Empire and burned churches and books. Others believe that it is a pagan queen Bani al-Hamwijah would have caused the decline of the empire. Other theories attribute the decline to climate change and overuse of soils leading to famine. Aksum came second in the list of greatest lost civilizations that vanished into thin air.

1. The Khmer Empire

Time: 1000-1400 AD.

Location: Cambodia

The Khmer empire, one of the most powerful empires and greatest lost civilizations, in Southeast Asia occupied what is now Cambodia to Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar and Malaysia. Angkor, the capital, became one of the most famous archaeological sites in Cambodia. This empire, which included up to a million people, was thriving during the first millennium. The Khmer practiced Hinduism and Buddhism and had built temples, towers and other sophisticated structures like the Angkor Wat, a temple dedicated to the god Vishnu. The decline of the Khmer Empire was due to the combination of several factors. Though most believe they were invade by the roads built by the Khmers to facilitate transport goods and troops across the empire.

Did we miss any intriguing stuff or do you want to add anything in this list of lost civilizations. Tell us in the comment section below. Written by: BEAOUI Yusuf

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