The ancient Greeks are renowned today for their advanced thinking. We’ve all heard of Aristotle and Socrates, and the writings of the Greeks have influenced modern thought in almost every way possible—from how we write fiction to how we understand the world around us. They were hundreds of years ahead of their time in mathematics and politics.

But perhaps their greatest achievements were in the area of mechanics. From the first computers to the first clock tower, the ancient Greeks built some truly amazing machines, some of which wouldn’t exist again for another 1,000 years. Some were practical, while others were simply for fun or to aid in scientific demonstrations.

Let’s take a look at ten of the greatest examples of ancient Greek mechanical engineering.

10 The Antikythera Mechanism

The Antikythera Mechanism is an analog computer that was discovered in an ancient Greek shipwreck in 1901. Assembled sometime between 205 BC and 60 BC, it was designed to measure the movements of the heavens. It had a clock-like face with seven hands that tracked the movements of the planets and the Moon and also had mechanisms for tracking the phase of the Moon, the calendar, and the lunar and solar eclipses.^[1]

It turned our understanding of Greek engineering upside down when it was first properly identified in 2006, with its extremely precise and interlocking gear systems. It demonstrated that the ancient Greeks were capable of a level of precision engineering that was previously thought impossible. And it might not even be the oldest version of this machine—Cicero, the Roman writer, described Archimedes building a similar device in the third century BC.

Unfortunately, only fragments of the device were recovered, so key features of it—such as how the device drove the planetary pointers, which no doubt must have been very complex, considering how the planets’ paths through the sky vary—are still not understood.

9 The Diolkos

The ancient Greek city of Corinth was a center of maritime trade in the ancient world, and it saw hundreds of vessels in its port at any one time. It was also close to the narrowest bit of land in the Greek peninsula, which would have saved ships days of travel if they could take a shortcut through it.^[2]

Hence the construction of the Diolkos sometime around the fifth century BC, a special kind of portage road that allowed ships to be hauled overland, avoiding the long trip around the Peloponnese. In the past, it used to be thought of as a way of transporting cargo ships quickly from the Aegean sea to the Ionian and vice versa, but it is now widely believed that cargo ships would have been too large to use the Diolkos, which would explain the construction of the Corinthian Canal in AD 67.

Nonetheless, it probably played an important role as a cheap method of moving small ships and military vessels between the seas in a hurry and was probably used by wealthy Greeks with their own personal boats as a fast form of transport.

8 Philo’s Gimbal

The gimbal serves many purposes today—not least in the world of television, where its role in stabilizing handheld cameras keeps filming nice and smooth—but the very first gimbal was invented by Philo of Byzantium sometime around 200 BC, when he used it to make an inkwell that would never spill.^[3]

The ink was mounted in a container at the center of the device, surrounded by concentric circles that always held it upright, even when turned. The frame around the outside featured numerous holes to dip the pen into—so the writer could turn the inkwell over, or accidentally knock it, and still continue writing without spilling any ink.

In later eras, the gimbal became absolutely crucial for navigation, holding a compass steady on a rocking ship so that the compass point always accurately pointed north.

7 The Kleroterion

The ancient Greek version of democracy may look primitive to our modern eyes, but they used a very innovative device to ensure that juries were always made up of people who couldn’t be bribed or otherwise influenced: a randomization machine.^[4]

A kleroterion was a kind of slot machine with some funnels, a crank, a hole, and 500 small slits. When a jury was assembled for a trial, each juror brought with them a form of ID—a thin piece of bronze or wood with their identifier on it, called a pinakion. These were all inserted into the slits. An officer tipped a handful of balls into the funnels at the top of the device—some black, some white. He then pulled the crank, causing one ball to come out. If the ball was black, the row of pinakia were removed, and those jurors wouldn’t serve that day. If the ball was white, those jurors were eligible for duty. The official pulled the crank for each row of pinakia until they’d all been accepted or rejected. There was no way to predict which ball would come out for which row, thereby ensuring that no one could have guessed before the trial who would be on the jury, preventing them from influencing their decisions.

6 The Aeolipile

The aeolipile was, as far as we know, the world’s first steam engine—invented in the first century AD, roughly a millennium and a half before they became a common means of generating electricity.

It was invented by Heron of Alexandria. However, it certainly wasn’t intended to be an engine, and Heron never saw it as such. Rather, he used it as a simple device to demonstrate some of the principles of pneumatics, no doubt to aid in lessons or to attract the attention of curious visitors.

The engine itself was a hollow sphere mounted on two tubes it could rotate around. The tubes provided steam from a hot cauldron below the machine. As the steam filled the sphere, it escaped through another tube (sometimes two) that jutted out of the sphere. These tubes were angled sideways, so the force of the steam coming out caused the sphere to rotate.^[5]

5 The Crane (And Archimedes’s Claw)

The Greeks invented the crane around the year 500 BC, a simple wooden hoist-and-pulley system that made erecting tall, sturdy buildings much more practical. (The technology was later improved by the Romans, who spread it across most of Europe.) However, the Greeks could easily build advanced cranes of their own, as is proven by Archimedes’s Claw.

Archimedes’s Claw (depicted rather fancifully in the painting above) was a machine built in Syracuse by Archimedes sometime before the Roman siege of the city in 214 BC.^[6] According to ancient accounts, the claw was a kind of crane that could either push or lift ships out of the sea, toppling them and causing them to sink. It was mounted close to the city’s sea walls, preventing Roman ships from coming close to the city.

According to Plutarch, the claw terrified the besieging Romans, who began to feel like they were fighting against the gods, and many soldiers were frightened by the sight of any wooden frame above the city walls in case it was another one of Archimedes’s contraptions. They gave up any hope of taking the city by sea, resigning themselves to a long land-based siege.

4 The Tower Of The Winds

Built in roughly 50 BC, the Tower of the Winds in Athens is widely considered to be the world’s first meteorological station as well as the world’s first clock tower.^[7] In ancient times, it was topped by a weather vane that indicated the direction of the wind. The tower has eight walls, each facing one of the compass points, and features a massive sundial which could be used to track the time of day. It had a water clock inside, which kept track of time overnight or on cloudy days.

Its considerable height and its dominant position on the Roman Agora in the city both seem to suggest it was intended to function in much the same way as a clock tower would today, and the ancient Greeks themselves knew it as the Horologion: “Timepiece.”

The building still stands today and is remarkably intact, mostly due to restoration work. It has inspired many architects over the course of history, and smaller replicas are scattered across Europe.

3 The Showers Of Pergamum

The ancient Greeks are famous today for their love of athletics, seen most prominently in the Olympics and their modern-day revival. What they are less known for, however, are the facilities ancient athletes sometimes enjoyed.

A system of showers was excavated at a gymnasium (built in the early second century BC) in Pergamum, which was one of the greatest ancient Greek cities.^[8] Now located in modern-day Turkey, it also hosted the greatest library outside of Alexandria, and its rulers consciously invested in the public works of their city to increase its prestige.

As such, it is unlikely that these shower systems were common across the Greek world, but they certainly existed. The Pergamum showers had seven bathing units, into which water flowed through an overhead mains system onto the bathers.

A shower system is also depicted on a vase from the fourth century BC, so by the time Pergamum’s showers were built, the ancient Greeks had been using showers for over a century. The image on the vase even depicts separate cubicles and rails for users to hang their belongings on.

2 Archimedes’s Screw

Archimedes is commonly considered to be the inventor of the Archimedes screw, a machine used even today for transporting water to a higher level with relatively little energy.^[9] The ancient Greek version was powered by treading, where human workers or slaves would use their weight to power the machine—the crank-operated version was invented in medieval Germany.

It is argued that Archimedes’s screw wasn’t the first such device to exist in the ancient world. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, built circa 600 BC, were said to have been watered by screws. However, the earliest source who says this is Strabo, writing almost 600 years later—and long after the invention of Archimedes’s screw, so he may have been using his knowledge of the technology around him to theorize how the Hanging Gardens might have worked. The site of the Gardens is still a mystery even today, so there is no way of knowing for sure.

Even so, the machine didn’t become commonly used until Archimedes’s lifetime, when it started to be employed by the Greeks and, later, the Romans for irrigation or for draining ships.

1 Heron’s Fountain

Another device designed by Heron of Alexandria to demonstrate physics, Heron’s fountain used the principles of hydraulics and pneumatics to create a fountain that spurts water without power.^[10] It is used even today in physics classrooms to aid teaching.

Heron’s fountain is made of three components: an open bowl, an airtight water-filled container, and an airtight air-filled container, each stacked above the other. A pipe leads from the bottom of the bowl to the air container, another leads from the air container into the water container, and another leaves the water container and is positioned above the bowl. When water is poured into the bowl, it falls down the pipe into the air container. Pressure in the air container then pushes air into the water container, which pushes water up the pipe and back into the bowl, where it creates more pressure in the air container.

While not physically practical, like Heron’s other devices it shows the incredible grasp the ancient Greeks had on physics over 1,000 years before the Renaissance and the scientific revolution. The device is not technically a perpetual motion machine, though it can run for a very long time if constructed to the right specifications. Resetting it is as simple as draining the water from the air container back into the water container.

The world of medicine is constantly advancing, bringing new hope with each breakthrough. Over the next decade, a handful of medications are expected to stand out for their impact. These drugs are not just about scientific progress—they’re about changing lives and offering new solutions where there were none before.

Whether tackling chronic illnesses or introducing treatments for conditions once deemed untreatable, these medications are paving the way for a healthier future. They promise not just improved health outcomes but also a better quality of life for countless people around the globe.

In this list, we’ll explore ten amazing drugs that are set to become game-changers in their respective fields. These are the names you’ll hear more often as they continue to revolutionize healthcare.

Related: 10 Medicines That Work But We Don’t Know Why

10 Harvoni: Revolutionizing Hepatitis C Treatment

Imagine a world where hepatitis C is no longer a chronic, debilitating disease. Enter Harvoni, a breakthrough medication that combines ledipasvir and sofosbuvir. This dynamic duo works by blocking proteins the hepatitis C virus needs to grow. The result? An impressive cure rate of 94% to 99%, turning what was once a life-long battle into a manageable, short-term treatment.

For many patients, Harvoni means taking just one pill a day for two to six months. This simplicity is a game-changer, especially for those dealing with genotype 1, the most common strain in the U.S. Harvoni’s approval for use in children, adults, and even those with complicated cases involving HIV or liver transplants makes it a versatile tool in the fight against hepatitis C.

However, this groundbreaking treatment doesn’t come cheap, with a hefty price tag of around $1,100 per pill. Yet, for many, the chance to live free from hepatitis C is priceless, making Harvoni a true revolution in antiviral therapy.^[1]

9 Aimovig: A Breakthrough for Migraine Relief

For those battling migraines, the search for relief often feels endless. Aimovig offers a new approach. This FDA-approved drug belongs to a class known as CGRP monoclonal antibodies, which target calcitonin gene-related peptide, a protein linked to migraine pain. By blocking CGRP, Aimovig aims to prevent migraines before they start.

What makes Aimovig unique is its focus on migraine prevention, unlike older treatments originally designed for other conditions. Patients have reported significant reductions in migraine frequency, with some experiencing up to eight fewer migraine days per month.

This means a notable improvement in daily life for many chronic migraine sufferers. With its targeted mechanism, Aimovig stands out in the evolving field of migraine treatment, offering hope and a better quality of life to millions affected by this condition.^[2]

8 Evrysdi (Risdiplam): Transforming Spinal Muscular Atrophy Care

Evrysdi, or risdiplam, offers new hope for those with spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Developed by Genentech, this oral medication boosts the production of the SMN protein, which is essential for motor neuron survival. Unlike earlier treatments that require injections, Evrysdi can be taken at home, making it more convenient for patients of all ages.

Clinical trials, such as FIREFISH and SUNFISH, have shown promising results. In the FIREFISH study, 90% of infants treated with Evrysdi survived without permanent ventilation after 12 months. The SUNFISH trial also reported significant motor function improvements in older patients, showcasing Evrysdi’s effectiveness across different age groups.

With FDA approval, Evrysdi represents a significant step forward in genetic medicine. It highlights the move towards more accessible and effective treatments for rare genetic disorders, offering a better quality of life for SMA patients.^[3]

7 Hemgenix: A Breakthrough in Hemophilia B Treatment

Hemgenix, developed by CSL Behring, is revolutionizing Hemophilia B treatment. Approved by the FDA in 2022, this gene therapy delivers a functional copy of the F9 gene to liver cells, allowing patients to produce clotting factor IX. In clinical trials, Hemgenix increased factor IX levels and reduced bleeding episodes by 64%.

Patients treated with Hemgenix, like those in France, have reported fewer bleeding incidents and improved quality of life. This one-time infusion reduces the need for regular treatments, offering a significant shift in managing Hemophilia B.

Ongoing research aims to confirm Hemgenix’s long-term benefits and safety. This therapy holds promise for transforming care for Hemophilia B patients, potentially reducing complications and enhancing independence.^[4]

6 Dupixent (Dupilumab): A Potential Future Treatment for Keloids

Dupixent, a monoclonal antibody known as dupilumab, has demonstrated potential in preventing keloid formation and alleviating related symptoms. Keloid scars, resulting from abnormal healing processes, are often challenging to treat effectively. Traditional treatments like corticosteroid injections frequently offer limited relief. Recent case studies have shown that dupilumab can reduce inflammation and prevent new keloids in patients with recurrent skin injuries, suggesting its promise as a novel treatment approach.

In one notable case, a 23-year-old woman with chronic keloids on her shoulders and chest experienced significant improvements after starting dupilumab. Previous treatments had failed, but with dupilumab, her keloids stabilized, and symptoms like pain and itching diminished. Similarly, a 20-year-old woman with multiple keloids from acne reported fewer new keloids and reduced discomfort after initiating dupilumab therapy. These cases highlight dupilumab’s potential in keloid prevention and management.

Ongoing clinical trials are exploring dupilumab’s efficacy in treating keloids. While these initial findings are promising, more research is needed to establish dupilumab as a definitive treatment for keloids, offering hope for patients seeking relief from this challenging condition.^[5]

5 Trikafta: A New Dawn for Cystic Fibrosis

The introduction of Trikafta in 2019 marked a significant breakthrough for individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF), transforming lives previously constrained by the disease. Trikafta, a triple combination drug, targets the defective cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein, improving lung function by thinning and clearing mucus.

Patients often experience increased mucus clearance, making breathing easier and enhancing daily life activities. Although long-term studies are ongoing, initial results suggest that Trikafta can potentially extend life expectancy and significantly improve the quality of life for many CF patients.

Jenny Livingston’s story exemplifies Trikafta’s impact. Diagnosed with CF at birth, she endured frequent hospitalizations and declining health. However, after starting Trikafta, her condition stabilized, allowing her to participate in activities she once couldn’t. Now, Jenny plans for a future with her daughter, something previously unimaginable.

While Trikafta is not a cure and may not be effective for all CF patients, its ability to transform many patients’ lives is undeniable. It’s important to note that some patients may experience side effects. Ongoing research continues to explore Trikafta’s full potential, promising even greater improvements in CF treatment.^[6]

4 Lecanemab: A New Frontier in Alzheimer’s Treatment

Lecanemab, developed by Biogen and Eisai, represents a promising advance in Alzheimer’s disease treatment. This monoclonal antibody targets amyloid plaques in the brain, which are associated with cognitive decline. Initially granted accelerated approval in January 2023 based on its ability to reduce amyloid plaques, lecanemab received full FDA approval in July 2023 after further clinical data confirmed its clinical benefit. In trials, lecanemab has shown modest but significant effects in slowing the progression of cognitive decline, providing a new option for patients and their families.

By administering intravenously every two weeks, lecanemab offers a consistent approach to managing Alzheimer’s. Although not a cure, it helps delay the disease’s progression, allowing patients to maintain their independence longer. The Alzheimer’s community views lecanemab as a crucial step forward, with ongoing research aiming to further validate and expand its benefits.

Dr. Lawrence Honig, a neurologist at NewYork-Presbyterian, emphasizes that lecanemab is one of the first treatments to show measurable effects in slowing Alzheimer’s progression. As research continues, lecanemab could become a cornerstone in Alzheimer’s care, providing much-needed hope and improved outcomes for patients and their families.^[7]

3 Scemblix: A Game-Changer in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Treatment

Scemblix, developed by Novartis, has emerged as a significant advancement in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Approved by the FDA in 2021, this novel drug targets the BCR-ABL1 protein, a key driver of CML. Recent data from the Phase III ASC4FIRST study, presented at the 2024 American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) Annual Meeting and the European Hematology Association (EHA) Congress, demonstrated Scemblix’s superior efficacy compared to other tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in newly diagnosed CML patients.

Patients treated with Scemblix showed higher rates of major molecular response and lower discontinuation rates due to adverse effects compared to those on traditional TKIs. This makes Scemblix not only a more effective option but also a more tolerable one for many patients. With its ability to provide better outcomes and improved tolerability, Scemblix is setting a new standard in leukemia care, offering hope and a higher quality of life for those affected by CML.^[8]

2 Zolgensma: A Gene Therapy Medical Miracle for Spinal Muscular Atrophy

Zolgensma, a groundbreaking gene therapy developed by Novartis, has revolutionized the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a severe genetic disorder that affects muscle strength and movement. Approved by the FDA in 2019, Zolgensma works by delivering a functional copy of the SMN1 gene to replace the missing or defective gene in SMA patients. This one-time intravenous infusion is designed for children under the age of two and has shown remarkable efficacy in clinical trials, significantly improving motor functions and extending life expectancy.

The impact of Zolgensma on patients’ lives is profound. Children who received this therapy have achieved developmental milestones previously thought impossible for SMA patients, such as sitting up, crawling, and even walking. For instance, twins Kali and Kaiden, diagnosed with SMA Type 1, received Zolgensma at one month old and have since shown tremendous progress, defying the grim prognosis typically associated with the disease. Their story, along with others, underscores the transformative potential of gene therapy in treating genetic disorders.

Despite its high cost, Zolgensma offers hope and a better quality of life for families affected by SMA. As ongoing research continues to evaluate its long-term benefits and safety, Zolgensma stands as a testament to the advancements in genetic medicine, providing a new lease on life for many young patients.^[9]

1 Ketruda (Pembrolizumab): Extending Survival in Kidney Cancer Patients

Keytruda (Pembrolizumab) is making waves as an adjuvant therapy for kidney cancer, particularly clear-cell renal cell carcinoma (RCC). Approved by the FDA in 2021, this immunotherapy works by targeting the PD-1 protein, enhancing the immune system’s ability to attack cancer cells. The KEYNOTE-564 trial revealed that patients treated with pembrolizumab post-surgery had a nearly 40% reduced risk of death compared to a placebo. Four years into treatment, 91% of patients on pembrolizumab were still alive, compared to 86% in the placebo group.

These results are groundbreaking, marking the first time an adjuvant therapy for kidney cancer has shown improved overall survival. Despite potential side effects like fatigue and rash, pembrolizumab offers new hope for patients at high risk of recurrence. Oncologists are optimistic about its potential to become a standard post-surgical treatment, significantly improving care and outcomes for early-stage kidney cancer patients. ^[10]

We look at skyscrapers and dams and see them as pinnacles of human engineering, content in the fact we can build whatever we want. However, we often fail to remember the technological marvels of ancient history—buildings or temples which seemed impossible to construct by primitive cultures. Here are ten hopefully lesser-known examples of amazing ancient construction.

10 Pueblo Bonito
United States

Located in Northwestern New Mexico, Pueblo Bonito is the largest and most well-known example of a great house (village) built by the ancestral Pueblo people. The village’s construction began in the early part of the 10th century AD and continued for nearly 180 years, reaching a peak of around 800 separate rooms, with some buildings having as many as five stories.

It was first discovered in 1849 by US Army Lieutenant James H. Simpson and his guide, Carravahal. Since then, Pueblo Bonito has become one of the most excavated and explored ruins in the Southwestern United States. A number of the rooms were damaged when part of the cliff wall behind the village collapsed. (The name of the rock which fell translated as “Threatening Rock,” showing that the builders were well aware of the danger.) Just behind Pueblo Bonito lies a set of petroglyphs, mysteriously showing six-toed feet, made sometime in the late 10th century or early 11th century.

9 Catalhoyuk
Turkey

Found in the southern half of Turkey, Catalhoyuk is estimated to have existed from around 7500 to 5700 BC. It was built by an unknown Neolithic culture that is believed to have been highly advanced. Excavations have been going on there since the site was first discovered in the late 1950s by British archaeologist James Mellaart.

A number of interesting items have been uncovered, including (allegedly) the earliest known map and some of the most exceptional daggers ever seen from that period. The houses of Catalhoyuk have an intriguing quirk: They have no doors and were entered from the roof, by ladder. Also, the dead seemed to be buried underneath the floors of the houses, particularly by the hearths. However, based on the discovery of some disarticulated bones, the bodies may have been left outdoors for a while before they were buried indoors.

8 Locmariaquer
France

Located in France’s Brittany region is a group of the largest prehistoric European megaliths in existence. Originally constructed around 4500 BC, the biggest stone at Locmariaquer was nearly 21 meters (70 ft) in length and between 200 and 280 tons in weight. (We don’t know for sure because the megalith, known as “the Fairy Stone,” was broken long ago, possibly by an earthquake but more likely by human hands.)

Astonishingly, the Fairy Stone was moved in one piece from a quarry over 10 kilometers (6 mi) away. It’s not known exactly how it was transported, but it could have been floated down a nearby channel or simply taken by land utilizing a “wooden cradle,” basically rolling logs on wooden tracks. The purpose of the site is unknown, although there is a dolmen (a type of tomb) located there. Other researchers have put forth theories involving lunar activity.

7 Colossi Of Memnon
Egypt

Built as a monument to Pharoah Amenhotep III and placed outside his now destroyed temple, the Colossi of Memnon are a pair of statues, standing nearly 23 meters (75 ft) high. The statues are of Amenhotep III, and reliefs of his wife, daughter, and mother can also be found in the rock. The statues are named after Memnon, a hero of the Trojan War, because he was the grandson of Eos, the goddess of the dawn, which is relevant to a unique attribute that one of the statues used to feature:

After the statues were damaged in an earthquake, the northern one was said to make a bell-like tone in the morning, possibly due to rising temperatures. The tone was believed to indicate that one was favored by the gods. Today, the sound can no longer be heard because the Roman emperor Septimius Severus accidentally stopped the noise when he was having the statues repaired in AD 199.

6 Pompey’s Pillar
Egypt

Erected as a monument to the Roman emperor Diocletian after he suppressed an Alexandrinian revolt, Pompey’s Pillar was erroneously believed to have been commissioned by the Roman leader Pompey. However, an inscription on the base clearly states it was made to honor Diocletian and given to him by the people of Alexandria. A myth involving Pompey’s death and his head being placed in a funerary jar on top of the pillar may have led to the confusion, another thing you can blame on those pesky Crusaders.

Standing over 27 meters (89 ft) high, it was originally built during the fourth century AD. Pompey’s Pillar was actually part of the Temple of Serapis, a Roman temple to an Egyptian god, but the temple is just ruins now, destroyed by the constant rise and wall of the nearby waters.

5 Dolmen Of Menga
Spain

Dating from around 2000 BC, the Dolmen of Menga is a large burial ground known as a tumulus and is located in the southern tip of Spain. A number of chambers were created by placing a large number of extremely heavy stones next to each other. The walls, the roof (which is made up of four individual pieces), and the pillars are made of the same rocks. As far as the name is concerned, legend says that a leper named Menga took refuge inside the dolmen after her husband died.

Archaeologists believe the dolmen to be the largest such structure in Europe and have found several hundred distinct skeletons inside it, possibly all belonging to the ruling groups of the culture. However, the identity of the builders remains a mystery to this day. This site, along with two sister ones, was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage list on July 15, 2016.

4 Quirigua
Guatemala

Built and completed by the Maya sometime between AD 200 and 800, Quirigua contains exemplary examples of Mayan architecture as well as one of the largest stelae (carved stone monuments) in existence. Stela E weighs in at an astonishing 65 tons. Stelae were commonly built to commemorate the passage of time or otherwise important events.

Frederick Catherwood, an English architect, was the first European to see Quirigua, and a number of excavations have taken place since then. Aldous Huxley once visited the ruins and wrote of the stelae that they commemorated “man’s triumph over time and matter and the triumph of time and matter over man.” Quiriga went into decline around AD 900, probably due to the loss of the jade trade.

3 Dur Sharrukin
Iraq

Translated as “Sargon’s Fortress” or “Fort Sargon,” Dur Sharrukin was built by the Assyrians sometime between 717 and 707 BC and stands in the northern part of Iraq. The city was nearly 2.6 square kilometers (1 mi²) in area and contained a temple to Nabu (a vegetation god) as well as a royal palace. However, the most interesting artifact recovered from the ruins is the Assyrian Bull, a work of stone estimated to weigh nearly 40 tons. It is the largest example of a bull, winged or otherwise, in human history.

Dur Sharrukin was first excavated by French consul Paul-Emile Botta in 1843. Subsequent expeditions have uncovered a number of new discoveries. The city itself was deserted shortly after construction was completed because King Sargon II was killed in battle.

2 Hagar Qim
Malta

Located in Malta, Hagar Qim is believed to have been built by an unknown culture between 3200 and 2500 BC. This culture said to have been wiped out as a result of famine or natural disaster and has left few identifying details.

Said to be one of the earliest examples of religious beliefs, the temple at Hagar Qim contains a number of fertility goddess statues known as Venuses, some of which are now on display in the National Museum of Archaeology in Valetta. Hagar Qim was built hundreds of years earlier than Stonehenge.

1 Tiwanaku
Bolivia

The prehistoric capital of the Tiwanaku people, the city of Tiwanaku is located on the shore of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia. Originally a small village, the city later flourished between AD 400 and 900, becoming home to a number of the largest stone structures in South America. The city was deserted around AD 1000, most likely due to floods. The Inca eventually conquered the Tiwanaku civilization, although their mythology eventually included the city, as it was believed to be the origin point of mankind.

Over a million people could have lived inside Tiwanaku. It was left abandoned until 1876, when US archaeologist Ephraim George Squier rediscovered it. In 2000, it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

About 100 years ago, our galaxy was thought to encompass the entire universe. A century later, we’re observing things more than 13 billion light-years away, nearing the moment of creation.

These following 10 discoveries come from the actual edge of existence. They show us just how much the early universe was a surprisingly happenin’ and amazing place.

10 A Galaxy From The Beginning Of Time

The beloved Hubble Telescope stole an image from the birth of the universe, just 400 million years after the big bang. It captured the bright infant galaxy GN-z11 as it was a whopping 13.4 billion years ago.

At this point, the universe was only 3 percent of its current age and just a few hundred million years had passed since the first stars burst into life.^[1]

GN-z11 probably grew into a proper beast. But here it only had 1 percent of the Milky Way’s mass in stars packed into a structure 25 times smaller than our galaxy.

9 Colliding Starburst Galaxies

Superluminous starburst galaxies shine stupendously with the birth of countless massive blue stars. They’re a rarity, but astronomers just spotted two of them colliding right on the big bang’s doorstep 12.7 billion years ago.

The swirling, bi-galactic entity is about 12.8 billion light-years away and known as ADFS-27. Each of its components is a dozen times larger than the 100,000 light-year-wide Milky Way.

Separated by 30,000 light-years, the two bodies are zooming at hundreds of kilometers per second relative to one another, setting up a crazier merger than anything yet witnessed.

The resulting elliptical mega-monster will probably be substantial enough to establish an entire galaxy cluster, snagging hundreds of thousands of other galaxies with its gravitational might.^[2]

8 The Most Ancient Black Holes

Scientists scanning the early universe for quasars have just come up with a bunch, confirming 83 new black holes to supplement the 17 known to exist during this era.

These things are millions or billions of times more massive than our Sun. They were already thriving when the universe was less than 10 percent of its current age, just 800 million years after the big bang.

Researchers calculated that if you took these known quasars and parceled the universe into cubes, each a billion light-years per side, every cube would get one black hole, accounting for one black hole per “giga-light-year.”^[3]

7 Fat And Dusty Galaxies

The gargantuan galaxies of the big bang era are saturated with dust and debris and can emit the radiation of a trillion Suns. But they’re invisible because their light is absorbed by all that dust and reemitted at submillimeter wavelengths.

With abundant materials and few bodies to gobble them up, researchers pinpointed a structure that was exceptionally fat and dusty. The galaxy possesses a whopping gas mass of 330 billion solar masses. Comparatively, the Milky Way only has a gas mass of five billion solar masses because most of its mass is already locked away in stars.^[4]

6 Whirlpool Galaxies At The Edge Of Space

The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) is so finely tuned that it peered through 94 percent of the universe and detected the rotation of two fetal galaxies.

They’re some of the oldest galaxies on record and five times smaller than the Milky Way, according to the ALMA snapshot that captured them as they were 800 million years after the big bang. Even though the view is nearly 13 billion years old, its color gradients indicate the motion of the gas and the galaxies’ rotation.^[5]

Like modern galaxies, they swirl like whirlpools, birthing from that chaos thousands of stars per year. They’re surprisingly ordered, say researchers who marvel at how quickly the universe organized its resources and propagated itself.

5 The Earliest Black Holes Were Surprisingly Monstrous

A fortuitously positioned, six-billion-light-year-distant galaxy acted as a cosmic magnifying lens, redirecting and amplifying some of the oldest photons in existence.

Those photons were expelled by quasar J0439+1634, which (thanks to the lens effect) appears 50 times brighter and lights up the early cosmos with the apparent light of 600 trillion Suns.

The quasar-powering black hole contains the mass of 700 million Suns and dates to 12.8 billion years ago. During this Epoch of Reionization, the first light sources pierced the opaque hydrogen and helium fog that cloaked the young universe.^[6]

4 A ‘Fossil Gas Cloud’

The universe is a big witch’s pot of chemicals, and there’s generally a lot of mixing going on. So, heavy elements are seemingly everywhere, but scientists have identified a pristine relic fossil gas cloud.

It’s only the third relic gas cloud discovered so far discovered, and it managed to remain uncontaminated even 1.5 billion years after the big bang. It’s also supremely wispy, indicative of its status as a primeval puff from the earliest days of existence.^[7]

Like a fluffy, cosmic 3 Musketeers bar, it has a proportion of heavy elements less than 1/10,000th that of the Sun. That must mean that it’s a leftover from a far-gone era in which stars hadn’t yet pumped out heavy elements like metals.

3 An Unexpected Twist On A Star With Two Planets

Astronomers found a souvenir from the beginning of time that was only 375 light-years away. HIP 11952 is a star full of hydrogen and helium but very much lacking in metals. Such a star could only exist at the dawn of the universe.

With an age of around 12.8 billion years, it formed when our Milky Way “was still a baby.” In 2012, scientists were shocked to discover that the star was harboring something even more amazing—two incredibly ancient planets.

Scientists are debating the origin of planets during the days of the first stars as planets may not have been able to form with the lack of heavy elements. They thought that the discovery of HIP 11952 was painting a clearer picture of when the first planets were finally able to form.

But then the story took an unexpected twist. Using the new high-resolution spectrograph HARPS-N at the Galileo National Telescope in Spain, astrophysicists took more measurements of HIP 11952 over a 150-day period from August 2012 to January 2013.

Instead of detecting two giant planets in the system, they found . . . nothing. Ultimately, they concluded that the previous discoveries of two ancient planets had been incorrect and occurred due to instrument errors.^[8]

2 A Stupendously Bright Quasar

P352-15 is the early universe’s brightest radio quasar by a factor of 10. It looks like three orange splotches, but those splotches reveal a 5,000-light-year-wide galaxy as it appeared 13 billion years ago. Though the universe was less than a billion years old, P352-15 is already a quasar with a supermassive black hole vomiting radiation at relativistic speeds.

That spewing, supermassive monster probably resides in one of the splotches on either side. The two blots opposing it are actually huge, lethal jets being ejected at near-light-speeds from the maw of a feasting black hole.^[9]

1 A Galaxy Full Of Old Stars

Astronomers have recently detected the faint wisp of ionized oxygen across 13.3 billion light-years of space.

It belongs to galaxy MACS1149-JD1, and it’s extremely red because the light has been stretched during an epic journey that began just 500 million years after the big bang. The existence of oxygen means that MACS1149-JD1’s stars had been shining for a long time—long enough to have produced said oxygen.

Not only that, but MACS1149-JD1 is already full of mature stars. Astronomers say these stars were shining just 250 million years after the big bang, a period not too distant from the birth of the very first stars.^[10]

Ivan writes about cool things for the Internet. You can contact him at [email protected].

Compared to many other species, all humans have incredibly similar genomes. However, even slight variations in our genes or environments can cause us to develop traits that make us unique. These differences can manifest in ordinary ways, such as through hair color, height, or facial structure, but occasionally, a person or population develops a characteristic that distinctly sets them apart from the rest of the human race.

10Can’t Get High Cholesterol

While most of us have to worry about limiting our intake of fried foods, bacon, eggs, or anything that we’re told is on the “cholesterol-raising list” of the moment, a few people can eat all these things and more without fear. In fact, no matter what they consume, their “bad cholesterol” (blood levels of low-density lipoprotein, associated with heart disease) remains virtually non-existent.

These people were born with a genetic mutation. More specifically, they lack working copies of a gene known as PCSK9, and while it’s usually unlucky to be born with a missing gene, in this case, it seems to have some positive side effects.

After scientists discovered the relationship between this gene (or lack thereof) and cholesterol about 10 years ago, drug companies have worked frantically to create a pill that would block PCSK9 in other individuals. The drug is close to getting FDA approval. In early trials, patients who have taken it have experienced as much as a 75-percent reduction in their cholesterol levels.

So far, scientists have only found the mutation in a handful of African Americans, and those with it have the benefit of a 90-percent reduced risk of heart disease.

9Resistance To HIV

All sorts of things could wipe out the human race—asteroid strikes, nuclear annihilation, and extreme climate change, just to name a few. Perhaps the scariest threat is some type of super-virulent virus. If a disease ravages the population, only the rare few who are immune would have a chance of survival. Fortunately, we know that certain people are indeed resistant to particular diseases.

Take HIV, for example. Some people have a genetic mutation that disables their copy of the CCR5 protein. HIV uses that protein as a doorway into human cells. So, if a person lacks CCR5, HIV can’t enter their cells, and they’re extremely unlikely to become infected with the disease.

That being said, scientists say that people with this mutation are resistant rather than immune to HIV. A few individuals without this protein have contracted and even died from AIDS. Apparently, some unusual types of HIV have figured out how to use proteins other than CCR5 to invade cells. This type of resourcefulness is why viruses are so scary.

Folks with two copies of the defective gene are most resistant to HIV. Currently, that includes only about 1 percent of Caucasians and is even more rare in other ethnicities.

8Malaria Resistance

Those who have an especially high resistance to malaria are carriers of another deadly disease: sickle cell anemia. Of course, no one wants the ability to dodge malaria only to die prematurely from malformed blood cells, but there is one situation where having the sickle cell gene pays off. To understand how that works, we have to explore the basics of both diseases.

Malaria is a type of parasite carried by mosquitoes that can lead to death (about 660,000 people per year) or at the very least make someone feel at death’s door. Malaria does its dirty work by invading red blood cells and reproducing. After a couple days, new malaria parasites burst out of the inhabited blood cell, destroying it. They then invade other red blood cells. This cycle continues until the parasites are stopped through treatment, the body’s defense mechanisms, or death. This process causes a loss of blood and weakens the lungs and liver. It also increases blood clotting, which can spark a coma or seizure.

Sickle cell anemia causes changes in the shape and makeup of red blood cells, which makes it difficult for them to flow through the blood stream and deliver adequate levels of oxygen. However, because the blood cells are mutated, they confuse the malaria parasite, making it difficult for it to attach and infiltrate the blood cells. Consequently, those who have sickle cells are naturally protected against malaria.

You can get the anti-malaria benefits without actually having sickle cells, so long as you’re a carrier of the sickle cell gene. To get sickle cell anemia, a person has to inherit two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent. If they only get one, they have enough abnormal hemoglobin to resist malaria yet will never develop full-fledged anemia.

Because of its strong protection against malaria, the sickle cell trait has become highly naturally selected in areas of the world where malaria is widespread, with as much 10–40 percent of people carrying the mutation.

7Tolerance For Coldness

Inuits and other populations who live in intensely cold environments have adapted to an extreme way of life. Have these people simply learned how to survive in these environments, or are they somehow biologically different?

Cold-dwellers have different physiological responses to low temperatures compared to those who live in milder environments. And it appears there might be at least a partial genetic component to these adaptations, because even if someone moves to a cold environment and lives there for decades, their bodies never quite reach the same level of adaptation as natives who have lived in the environment for generations. For instance, researchers have found that indigenous Siberians are better adapted to the cold even when compared to non-indigenous Russians living in the same community.

People native to cold climates have higher basal metabolic rates (around 50 percent higher) than those accustomed to temperate climates. Also, they can maintain their body temperatures better without shivering and have relatively fewer sweat glands on the body and more on the face. In one study, researchers tested different races to see how their skin temperatures changed when exposed to cold. They found that Inuits were able to maintain the highest skin temperature of any group tested, followed by other Native Americans.

These types of adaptations partly explain why aboriginal Australians can sleep on the ground during cold nights (without shelter or clothing) with no ill effects and why Inuits can live much of their lives in subzero temperatures.

The human body is much better suited at adjusting to heat than to cold, so it’s rather impressive that people manage to live at all in freezing temperatures, let alone thrive.

6Optimized For High Altitude

Most climbers who’ve made it to the summit of Mt. Everest wouldn’t have done so without a local Sherpa guide. Amazingly, Sherpas often travel ahead of the adventurers to set ropes and ladders, just so the other climbers have a chance of making it up the steep cliffs.

There’s little doubt that Tibetans and Nepalese are physically superior in this high-altitude environment, yet what is it exactly that allows them to work vigorously in oxygen-depleted conditions, while ordinary folks have to struggle just to stay alive?

Tibetans live at an altitude above 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) and are accustomed to breathing air that contains about 40 percent less oxygen than at sea level. Over the centuries, their bodies compensated for this low-oxygen environment by developing bigger chests and greater lung capacities, which make it possible for them to inhale more air with each breath.

And, unlike lowlanders whose bodies produce more red blood cells when in low oxygen, high-altitude people have evolved to do the exact opposite—they produce fewer red blood cells. This is because while an increase in red blood cells might temporarily help a person get more oxygen to the body, it makes blood thicker over time and can lead to blood clots and other potentially deadly complications. Similarly, Sherpas have better blood flow in their brains and are overall less susceptible to altitude sickness.

Even when living at lower altitudes, Tibetans still maintain these traits, and researchers have found that many of these adaptations aren’t simply phenotypic variances (i.e., would reverse at low altitudes) but are genetic adaptations. One particular genetic change occurred in a stretch of DNA known as EPAS1, which codes for a regulatory protein. This protein detects oxygen and controls production of red blood cells and explains why Tibetans don’t overproduce red blood cells when deprived of oxygen, like ordinary people.

The Han Chinese, the lowland relatives of the Tibetans, do not share these genetic characteristics. The two groups split from each other about 3,000 years ago, which means these adaptations occurred in only about 100 generations—a relatively short time in terms of evolution.

5Immunity To A Brain Disease

In case we needed another reason to avoid cannibalism, eating our own kind is not a particularly healthy choice. The Fore people of Papua New Guinea showed us as much in the mid–20th century when their tribe suffered through an epidemic of Kuru—a degenerative and fatal brain disease spread by eating other humans.

Kuru is a prion disease related to Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) in humans and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease). Like all prion diseases, kuru decimates the brain, filling it with sponge-like holes. The infected suffers through a decline in memory and intellect, personality changes, and seizures. Sometimes, people can live with a prion disease for years, but in the case of kuru, the afflicted usually die within a year of showing symptoms. It’s important to note that, although very rare, a person can inherit a prion disease. However, the illness is most commonly spread by eating an infected person or animal.

Initially, anthropologists and medical doctors didn’t know why kuru was spreading across the Fore tribe. Finally, in the late 1950s, it was discovered that the infection was being transmitted at mortuary feasts, where tribe members would consume their deceased relatives out of respect. Mostly women and young children participated in the cannibalistic ritual. Consequently, they were the ones predominantly affected. Before the funerary practice was banned, some Fore villages had virtually no young women remaining.

But not all who were exposed to kuru died from it. Survivors had a novel variation in a gene called G127V that made them immune to the brain disease. Now, the gene is widespread among the Fore and surrounding people, which is surprising because kuru only popped up in the area around 1900. This incident is one of the strongest and most recent examples of natural selection in humans.

4Golden Blood

Although we’re often told that type O blood is a universal blood type that anyone can receive, that’s not the case. In fact, the whole system is a bit more complicated than many of us realize.

While most of us are aware of the eight basic blood types (A, AB, B, and O—each of which can be positive or negative), there are currently 35 known blood group systems, with millions of variations in each system. Blood that doesn’t fall into the ABO system is considered rare, and those who have such blood may find it challenging to locate a compatible donor when in need of a transfusion.

Still, there’s rare blood, and then there’s really rare blood. Presently, the most unusual kind of blood is known as “Rh-null.” As its name suggests, it doesn’t contain any antigens in the Rh system. It’s not that uncommon for a person to lack some Rh antigens. For instance, people who don’t have the Rh D antigen have “negative” blood (e.g. A-, B-, or O-). Still, it’s extremely extraordinary for someone to not have a single Rh antigen. It’s so extraordinary, in fact, that researchers have only come across 40 or so individuals on the planet who have Rh-null blood.

What makes this blood even more interesting is that it totally beats O blood in terms of being a universal donor, since even O-negative blood isn’t always compatible with other types of rare negative blood. Rh-null, however, works with nearly any type of blood. This is because, when receiving a transfusion, our bodies will likely reject any blood that contains antigens we don’t possess. And since Rh-null blood has zero Rh, A, or B antigens, it can be given to practically everyone.

Unfortunately, there are only about nine donors of this blood in the world, so it’s only used in extreme situations. Because of its limited supply and enormous value as a potential lifesaver, some doctors have referred to Rh-null as “golden” blood. In some cases, they’ve even tracked down anonymous donors (a big no-no) to request a sample.

Those who have the Rh-null type undoubtedly have a bittersweet existence. They know that their blood is literally a lifesaver for others with rare blood, yet if they themselves need blood, their options are limited to the donations of only nine people.

3Crystal-Clear Underwater Vision

Most animals’ eyes are designed for seeing things underwater or in air—not both. The human eye, of course, is adept at seeing things in air. When we try to open our eyes underwater, things look blurry. This is because the water has a similar density to the fluids in our eyes, which limits the amount of refracted light that can pass into the eye. Low refraction equals fuzzy vision.

That knowledge makes it all the more surprising that a group of people, known as the Moken, have the ability to see clearly underwater, even at depths up to 22 meters (75 ft).

The Moken spend eight months of the year on boats or stilt houses. They only return to land to get essential items, which they acquire by bartering foods or shells collected from the ocean. They gather resources from the sea using traditional methods, which means no modern fishing poles, masks, or diving gear. Children are responsible for collecting food, such as clams or sea cucumbers, from the sea floor. Through this repetitive and consistent task, their eyes are now capable of changing shape when underwater to increase light refraction. Thus, they can easily distinguish between edible clams and ordinary rocks even when many meters below water.

When tested, the Moken children had underwater vision twice as sharp as European children. However, it seems that this is an adaptation that we might all possess if our environment demanded it, since researchers have trained European children to perform underwater tasks as successfully as the Moken.

2Super-Dense Bones

Getting old comes with a host of physical problems. A common such issue is osteoporosis, a loss of bone mass and density. This leads to inevitable bone fractures, broken hips, and hunched spines—not a pleasant fate for anyone. Still, it’s not all bad news, as a group of people have a unique gene that may hold the secret to curing osteoporosis.

The gene is found in the Afrikaner population (South Africans with Dutch origins), and it causes people to gain bone mass throughout their lives instead of losing it. More specifically, it’s a mutation in the SOST gene, which controls a protein (sclerostin) that regulates bone growth.

If an Afrikaner inherits two copies of the mutated gene, they develop the disorder sclerosteosis, which leads to severe bone overgrowth, gigantism, facial distortion, deafness, and early death. Obviously, that disorder is far worse than osteoporosis. However, if they only inherit one copy of the gene, they don’t get sclerosteosis and simply have especially dense bones throughout their lives.

Although heterozygous carriers of the gene are currently the only ones enjoying the benefits, researchers are studying the DNA of Afrikaners with hopes of finding ways to reverse osteoporosis and other skeletal disorders in the general population. Based on what they’ve learned so far, they’ve already started clinical studies on a sclerostin inhibitor that’s capable of stimulating bone formation.

1Need Little Sleep

If it ever seems like some people have more hours in their day than you do, it turns out they just might—at least more awake hours. That’s because there are unusual individuals who can operate on six or fewer hours of shut-eye a night. And they aren’t simply getting by—they thrive on this limited amount of sleep, while many of the rest of us are still dragging ourselves out of bed after snoozing for eight solid hours.

These people aren’t necessarily tougher than the rest of us, and they haven’t trained their bodies to function on less sleep. Instead, they have a rare genetic mutation of the gene DEC2, which causes them to physiologically need less sleep than the average person.

If normal sleepers were to stick to six or fewer hours of slumber, they’d start experiencing negative impacts almost immediately. Chronic sleep deprivation can even lead to health problems, including serious ones like high blood pressure and heart disease. Those with the DEC2 mutation don’t have any of the problems associated with sleep deprivation, despite the limited time their heads are on the pillow. While it might seem odd that a single gene could change what we believe is a basic human need, those studying the DEC2 mutation believe it’s helping people to sleep more efficiently with more intense REM states. Apparently, when we have better sleep, we need less of it.

This genetic anomaly is exceedingly rare and is only found in less than 1 percent of self-proclaimed short-sleepers. So, chances are, even if you think you have it, you probably don’t.

Content and copy writer by day and list writer by night, S. Grant enjoys exploring the bizarre, unusual, and topics that hide in plain sight. Contact S. Grant here.

It is all too easy to stare into the empty depths of the eye sockets of a skull and forget that what you are looking at was once a human being with as rich an inner life as yours. These days, however, in museums, churches, and bizarrely unexpected places, many skulls are being found and transformed by researchers.

By reconstructing the faces of people from the past, we can bring them back to life, at least in terms of how we perceive them. Here are ten of the most breathtaking facial reconstructions, each of them providing a fascinating glimpse into history.

10 Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa

The Etruscans were the masters of Italy for centuries before the Romans conquered them. Today, little remains of their world, as the Romans were so thorough in absorbing them. Some of the most startling discoveries archaeologists have made are in the tombs the Etruscans left behind. Sarcophagi of the Etruscans show the dead as they looked in life. The dead person is depicted reclining on a bed, often with a pillow under one arm for comfort.

In the British Museum, the sarcophagus of Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa can be found. Her image shows a plump but fresh-faced lady in the peak of health. Examining the less lively remains inside the coffin gave experts the chance to compare the image with the reality. They found Seianti Hanunia Tlesnasa to be a woman of around 50 when she died.^[1] By modeling how her flesh would have been attached to her skull, they found that the model on top of the sarcophagus was clearly a portrait of the dead woman—even if a somewhat flattering one.

9 Cheddar Man

Cheddar Man is the oldest near-complete Homo sapiens skeleton found in Britain.^[2] Dating to around 10,000 years ago, he has long been a figure of interest for historians. Where had he come from, and what was his life like? It was determined that he suffered from a bone infection and probably died a violent death, but not all that much was known about him.

In 2018, DNA studies on the remains allowed for an accurate reconstruction of Cheddar Man for the first time. It was discovered that Cheddar Man had blue eyes, dark, curly hair, and dark skin. It appears that the pale skin that can often be used to identify British people in the summer was a much more recent development than originally thought. Studies suggest that Cheddar Man was part of the population known as Western European Hunter-Gatherers, who formed around ten percent of the ancestry of modern Britons.

8 Richard III

Kings do not usually have to wait for a parking space. Richard III of England spent centuries under a parking lot, however. In 2012, more than 500 years after his death in battle, the king’s remains were dug up. Archaeologists had good reason to suspect he was buried there, as it was known to be the site of the church where he was thought to have been laid to rest. They immediately suspected they had found their monarch by examining the bones and noting the wounds which caused his death and the scoliosis which twisted his spine. Confirmation came through DNA comparisons with surviving relatives.

Using the rediscovered skull, they were able to give us the first accurate portrait of the maligned Richard.^[3] Paintings done during his reign were later altered, and those done afterward showed the king as a wicked and deformed character. We now know that Richard simply had a somewhat prominent nose and chin.

7 Griffin Warrior

The Griffin Warrior Tomb is the name given to an archaeological site at Pylos in Greece. Discovered in 2015, it dates from around 1450 BC and contained rich offerings, as well as a skeleton. One of the finds, a tiny engraved gem showing two men in combat, is considered one of the masterpieces of ancient Greek art. The Griffin Warrior of the tomb got his name from an ivory plaque showing a griffin.

The excavation showed that the dead person was a man in his thirties and likely to have been both rich and important. The quality of the goods alone testified to his wealth, but his height and strength suggested he had enjoyed a good diet in life. Combs found in the grave suggest he wore his hair long. By examining the skull and the engraved stone, a facial reconstruction was made that captured both the warrior’s facial structure and how he wore his hair and shaved.^[4]

6 Dante

It should not perhaps surprise us that Dante, the poet of the Christian afterlife, has had a bit of a complicated time after his own death. A renowned poet in his own life, he was exiled from his beloved Florence. When he died, he was buried in Ravenna. Recognizing that they had cast out one of their geniuses, Florence wanted his body back, but the monks in charge of his grave hid his bones. Florence has had to suffer without his corpse since then.

A man as famous as Dante always has paintings made of him, but most of them are quite ugly. His cheeks hang down, and his nose points at his chin. In 2007, researchers used measurements of Dante’s skull to see if he really deserved this artistic treatment.^[5] The reconstruction suggests that Dante was no worse-looking than many people, and his distinctive features in many paintings were the product of poetic license rather than true to the poet himself.

5 Henri IV Of France

Henri IV of France was beloved in his time. Well, as beloved as a king who ended up getting assassinated can be. He was tolerant of other religious faiths and liked a good time. Henri was known as a philanderer, something which only endeared him further to his subjects. Even the fact that his feet and armpits stank of garlic did not seem to have harmed his popularity. Long after his death, however, during the French Revolution, his corpse was disinterred and desecrated.^[6] Somehow, his head became disconnected and ended up in the attic of a tax collector.

The facial reconstruction performed on the skull revealed a face very similar to those shown in official portraits. Not all of the king’s descendants accept that the skull really is that of Henri, and for now, it sits in a bank vault in Paris.

4 Simon Of Sudbury

It’s not only kings who can misplace their heads. Simon of Sudbury is unfortunate in that he was still alive when his was removed—with eight brutal blows from an ax. Simon, archbishop of Canterbury, had made the unfortunate choice to become lord chancellor of England in 1380, when the country was at war and broke. The jewels of the young King Richard II were pawned, but to continue the war with France required the vast sum of £160,000. It was decided that a poll tax would be levied. This proved a mistake, as it provoked the Peasants’ Revolt, which led to Simon being beheaded.^[7]

His head was speared onto a pike and paraded around the city before being recovered. Today, it rests in a church, but it has been used to reconstruct the unfortunate archbishop’s appearance. Looking a little like Shrek, the chancellor would have been a very distinctive person in life. Hiding from his enemies was probably not an option.

3 The Lady Of Cao

In 2006, a mummy was discovered in Peru. Though well-preserved, the Lady of Cao died roughly 1,500 years ago. Those who buried her had not set out to mummify the young lady; the conditions just happened to be right to dry her body before it rotted. Her corpse remained in such a good condition that her tattoos of snakes, spiders, and crabs could still be seen. Because of the high-status items found with her and the location of her burial, the Lady of Cao made her discoverers reconsider what they thought they knew about Moche society. Ladies, it seems, could be leaders.

By laser-scanning the face and skull, researchers were able to recreate her appearance at the time of her death.^[8] Only in her twenties, there is some evidence that the Lady of Cao died shortly after childbirth. By comparing the reconstruction of her face to those of women currently living in the area, it was found that face and skull shapes have changed relatively little in the intervening centuries.

2 Saint Nicholas

Santa Claus is a real person. Or at least he is based on a real person. Saint Nicholas was a fourth-century bishop who lived in modern-day Turkey. He gained his reputation as a gift-giver because of his habit of covertly leaving small presents for the needy. In one case, he is said to have thrown small bags of gold through a window, an act which saved three girls from being forced into prostitution. According to legend, the bags landed in stockings and shoes left by a fireplace. While many children would dearly love to see Saint Nicholas on Christmas Eve, those who actually want to see his face would have to travel to Bari in Italy, where his remains are held.

In 2014, these remains were used to recreate the saint’s face.^[9] Saint Nicholas had at some point suffered a badly broken nose—so bad that it cracked the bones between his eyes. This failed to heal straight and would have given the saint’s nose a dramatic twist. This may have been the result of torture the saint is said to have endured during a persecution of Christians.

1 Tutankhamun

Tutankhamun has one of the most recognizable faces in all of history. The golden mask of his sarcophagus is instantly familiar and has pervaded our culture ever since its discovery. Yet for all the splendor of his tomb, Tutankhamun was a relatively minor pharaoh. The mask shows Tutankhamun as the ideal of a perfect young king. The truth was rather more disturbing.

Medical studies of the pharaoh’s corpse have shown that he had a club foot, malaria, and suffered because of the incestuous marriage of his parents. It is likely that when Tutankhamun walked, he required a cane to support him. Many canes were found in his tomb.

In contrast to the gilded youth of his sculptures and mask, Tutankhamun in life looked rather ungainly.^[10] He suffered from a pronounced overbite and a slightly malformed skull. Perhaps the mask made for him showed the face he wanted to be known with in eternity.

Humans love color. It affects our moods, attracts our attention, defines our culture. We use it in our national identities, and we’ll spend weeks agonizing over swaths of it for our kitchen. Our visual sense is often our strongest, and color has been an important part of our existence from our very earliest history. Sometimes a color can change the world, for good or for evil, or be associated with some of our greatest events or customs.

10Color-Coded Saints Changed The Meaning Of Blue

In 431, the Catholic Church assigned color to its various saints, with Mary the mother of Jesus receiving the color of blue. Blue was an expensive and rare dye, perfect for religious use. Over time, Mary’s blue became what we’d recognize today as navy blue, and its association with Mary meant blue took on a meaning of trustworthiness and innocence and also led to its use in police and military uniforms.

With time, that color is now associated with authority (or even authoritarianism) more than it is with Mary or trustworthiness. Because of this, the United Nations specifically adopted a lighter shade of blue when it designed uniforms for its peacekeeping troops.

9Color Tv Changed American Politics

In 1976, the NBC network, which was the first fully colored network, chose a color-coded, illuminated map used to distinguish which states had voted for which party in the presidential race: blue if the states had voted for Republican Gerald Ford and red if for Democrat Jimmy Carter. Eventually, other networks used similar devices, but in the 1980 election, there was no standard. On one channel Reagan voting states would be blue, but on others red.

It wasn’t until the heated 2000 election, when calling a state for either candidate was a long and suspenseful process, that a standard color scheme developed across the board. Red was assigned to Republican candidate George W. Bush and blue to the Democratic candidate Al Gore. “Red states” and “blue states” were born, and those monikers have been used increasingly ever since in the American political landscape.

8Purple Proof Of Royalty

In the Mediterranean, a sea snail, Bolinus brandaris, has a mucus that can be used to produce a purple dye. It would take some 250,000 poor sea snails to make just one ounce of this purple. Yet this was the only source of purple dye in the ancient world, so the color was very expensive. A pound of purple wool cost more than an average year’s wage at the time. It became status symbol for the rich and powerful. Ancient Rome, Egypt, and Persia all associated the color with royalty. Purple was prized greatly in the Byzantine Empire, where rulers wore purple, signed edicts in purple ink, and even their children were considered “born in the purple.”

The association continued to England, where during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, it was forbidden for anyone not in the immediate royal family to wear the color. This monopoly mostly continued until 1856, when an 18-year-old chemist named William Henry Perkins accidentally created a synthetic purple dye while trying to make an anti-malaria drug. For thousands of years, purple defined governments and status, divine right, and rulership, and now, we can casually throw on a purple scarf before jogging to the corner shop.

7Pink As A Color Of Support

Pink as a symbol for the fight against breast cancer can be traced back to a different color entirely. It began with a yellow ribbon used by Penny Laingen as a symbol of awareness and support for her husband during the Iran hostage crisis in 1979. A decade later, an activist group called Visual AIDS used a red ribbon as a way to raise similar awareness and support. From there, every charity used their own color of ribbon to support different causes, so much so that The New York Times labeled 1992 as the “Year of the Ribbon.”

One important result was the Pink Ribbon as a symbol in raising awareness of and support for those suffering through breast cancer. In many ways, it is the most successful movement of its kind, and its footprint can be seen the world over. Firefighters are wearing pink, the NFL is sporting the color, and even moving trucks and cranes are painted.

6Orange Varnish Makes Music Worth Millions

Antonio Stradivari is perhaps the most well-known instrument maker in history. From the late 1600s to the early 1700s, he crafted some of the most beautiful and sought-after instruments ever made. Some of his work sells for tens of millions at auction.

One defining feature of his violins is the brilliant orange varnish used in their construction. While it would be an oversimplification to attribute the quality of a Stradivari violin solely to the varnish, it has long been thought that his unique varnish provided a critical piece to the puzzle. More evidence of his talent lies in the recent discovery that his orange varnish recipe contains common materials, easily available to other instrument makers of the time. Yet none of his peers’ work remains as timeless and unforgettably beautiful as the music made from the orange violins of Stradivari.

5International Orange Defines A City

In the 1930s, bridges were traditionally black, gray, or maybe silver to spice things up. But things were changing in San Francisco. The largest suspension bridge ever built was being constructed over the Golden Gate Strait, and the consulting architect on the project Irving Morrow, who designed the bridge’s iconic styling and lighting, also had a thought on the color.

“The Golden Gate Bridge is one of the greatest monuments of all time.” He said, “Its unprecedented size and scale, along with its grace of form and independence of conception, all call for unique and unconventional treatment from every point of view. What has been thus played up in form should not be let down in color.”

Inspired by the red steel primer used on the project, Morrow began extensive color studies with engineers, painters, sculptors, and other architects. The result of this collaboration was the color International Orange. The orange has come to define one of the most recognizable landmarks in the world, as well as the city it resides in.

4Yellow Topples A Tyrant

Ferdinand Marcos’s dictatorial rule of the Philippines was resisted by opposition leader Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino, whose favorite color was yellow. When Ninoy Aquino was shot and killed in 1983, his supporters took their cue from the song “Tie a Yellow Ribbon ‘Round the Old Oak Tree” and used yellow ribbons as a memorial and show of support all around the airport where he died.

From then on yellow became the color of the revolution. The opposition united behind Ninoy’s widow Corazon Aquino, who wore a yellow dress while campaigning against Marcos. When warned that this yellow dress made her an easy target, she replied, “When Ninoy died, I lost my fear.” From there, yellow began appearing in everything associated with the revolution: T-shirts, banners, flags, caps, and even toilet paper sported the common color.

More and more elements of the military and government backed Aquino, and the entire movement culminated in a three-day rally of some two million participants. Eventually, support for Aquino reached a point where Marcos was forced to cede control of the government and leave the country. Aquino was elected president in 1986. During the entire revolution, not a single shot was fired. Though formally called the People’s Party Revolution, another popular name is the Yellow Revolution.

3White’s Role In Combat

In the Second Punic War between the Roman and Carthaginian Empires, a Carthaginian ship was reported to display white wool and olive branches to signal its wish to surrender. This practice continued into 69, where a white banner was again used to broadcast a wish to parley in the Second Battle of Cremona. Soon, the white flag became well established in the Western world as a sign of surrender. Interestingly, the practice also arose independent of the West in the first to third century in China during the Eastern Han Dynasty.

Though often used as a sign of surrender, the white flag has also been used to indicate non-combatants, such as medieval Heralds, who carried white standards to make sure they weren’t mistaken for soldiers. The white flag has become so predominate in the world stage that many treaties and countries have forbade its misuse and defined such abuse as a war crime.

2A Morbid Brown Creates Cultural Heritage

Masterpieces of art such as The Last Sleep of Arthur in Avalon by Edward Burne-Jones and Martin Drolling’s L’interieur d’une cuisine share a disturbing fact in common. Both were painted using dead people.

By the 16th century, the export and misuse of mummies had become a thriving business. The corpses were used as attractions or ground into powder for medicine or even as paint. “Mummy Brown” was used for centuries and was still produced even as recently as 1964. As a paint, it received mixed reviews. Some claimed, “it flows from the brush with a delightful freedom and evenness” and provides “thin films that are extremely lovely and enjoyable,” while others held the practice to be distasteful.

Those in disgust seemed to be the majority. When Edward Burne-Jones learned of the grisly origin of his paint, his widow reported, “he left us at once, hastened to the studio, and returning with the only tube he had, insisted on our giving it decent burial there and then. So a hole was bored in the green grass at our feet, and we all watched it put safely in, and the spot was marked by one of the girls planting a daisy root above it.”

1A Green Poisoned Napoleon Bonaparte

The cause of Napoleon’s death has been hotly debated. Was it a stomach ulcer? Arsenic exposure? Evidence for the latter can be found when studying samples of the wallpaper of Longwood, Napoleon’s prison home while in exile.

In the 18th century, a new pigment of green was devised and named Scheele’s Green, after its creator. This pigment made heavy use of arsenic and was present in the wallpaper Napoleon was surrounded by in his final years. Both samples of the wallpaper and Napoleon’s own hair have been tested and found to contain arsenic. In a high temperature, damp room, the wallpaper could well release enough arsenic to account for what was found in Napoleon’s hair, but we’ll never say for sure if it was the color green that killed him.

Much of the world remains in lockdown at the moment so there are a lot of places you can’t go. Though the real world is out of bounds that does not mean that you can’t take a little holiday, if you’re willing to get a little creative. Or enter the creative mode of Minecraft.

Minecraft is a simple game with simple rules but the blocky nature of the world in which it is set has not stopped players creating amazingly detailed recreations of both real world and fictional settings. Here are ten of the best places you can visit without leaving your laptop.

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10 Denmark

Most Minecraft players make do with building small homes to keep the Creepers out. The Danish government had rather grander designs.^[1] Using maps they created a scale model of their entire country. This was to make a fun way for people to explore the country – especially those hard to reach places. Because of the way in which the virtual Denmark was generated the buildings were incomplete and flat-roofed. To correct this Danish citizens were encouraged to help build a better simulacrum of their country. The one tool they were not allowed to use was the TNT that makes Minecraft so fun. But alas something was rotten in the state of Denmark.

Alas Denmark did not survive long before it was invaded by the forces of the United States. Players managed to sneak in TNT and set about demolishing the capital city Copenhagen. Large US flags sprung up across the virtual country. Luckily for Denmark it was a simple matter of rolling back to an earlier – Pre-invasion – version.

9 The Acropolis

The buildings, temples, and treasuries of the Acropolis in Athens were considered one of the high points of Greek civilisation. The Parthenon in particular has become an icon of the entire era. It took the ancient Greeks a vast amount of time, gold, and effort to build and rebuilt the Acropolis. After the Persian invasion and destruction of Athens it took around 50 years to complete the famous buildings that stand there to this day. In its Minecraft form it took around 3 months…

In the real world the Acropolis was situated at the heart of Athens but in Minecraft it sits among Elysian fields of grain. Another difference from the Acropolis as it was originally built is that the Minecraft version preserves the current white state of the Parthenon. In reality the buildings of the Acropolis were a riot of, to our eyes, garishly painted colours.

8 Cathedrals

Cathedrals were literal and metaphorical pinnacles of European building in cities. Enclosing vast spaces they were designed to make people look upwards and explore the nature of the divine. Of course building such huge structures out of stone and wood was a complex affair and could take a while. In the case of Cologne cathedral it began in 1248 and wasn’t completed until 1880. The Minecraft version took a little less than the 632 years of the original. The Minecraft cathedral preserves every spire and flying buttress of the original and is richly decorated inside with hanging chandeliers.

If Cologne cathedral is not to your taste you can always visit Notre Dame in Paris. Of course since the real cathedral suffered a tragic and devastating fire it may be some time before the original is open to the public. Minecraft is the next best thing.

7 Babylon

Of the seven wonders of the Ancient World only the Great Pyramid stands in any recognisable form. Some like the Colossus of Rhodes were felled after only a few years and disappeared from history. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were build around 600 BC by king Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife and were just one of the marvels the Babylonians created in their capital city.

The recreation of Babylon in Minecraft includes not only the Hanging Gardens but the fabled Tower of Babel. While that was designed to reach the heavens this tower is limited by Minecraft’s 256 block height limit. The Ishtar Gate that guides you into the city are flanked by winged bulls – a strange but common motif in Ancient Babylonia.

6 Minas Tirith

“Have you ever seen it, Aragorn? The White Tower of Ecthelion, glimmering like a spike of pearl and silver, its banners caught high in the morning breeze.” The capital city of Gondor in J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings, Minas Tirith is a city built on seven levels that clings to the side of a mountain and towers above a plain. In Minecraft fans of the books and films have recreated the city, down to its billowing banners.

While some other sites on this list cannot be visited because they are in dangerous locations or have been destroyed Minas Tirith suffers from the drawback of being fictional. If you want to visit it then Minecraft is your only option.

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5 Hogwarts

Many young people dreamed of being whisked away to a magical world and the Harry Potter universe gave them the perfect opportunity. The Floo Network spent years producing a version of Harry Potter’s Hogwarts school in Minecraft. Every detail of J.K. Rowling’s world from the Shrieking Shack to the Whomping Willow to her love of alliteration is presented for those who want to learn to be a witch or wizard. They even have floating candles in dining hall.

To complete the world they also went to the trouble of building parts of the real world city of London where one of the ways of entering the magical world is found in the books. The Minecraft version of London it must be said is slightly tidier than the real thing…

4 Festivals

Across the world hundreds of events big and small have been cancelled this year. Some of the biggest music festivals will not be taking place for the foreseeable future due to the risk of spreading the Coronavirus. One of the benefits of sitting alone in your room on Minecraft is that you have very little chance of contracting a real illness. So some musicians are turning to Minecraft as a way to connect to their fans.^[2]

While much of the time when Minecrafters get together on servers there can be some destruction and more than a little placing of TNT many gig have now taken place. Other games like Fortnite have hosted musical events but Minecraft with its open worlds and servers gives more scope for bands and musicians to shape their gigs. Admittedly there is somewhat less atmosphere when instead of jumping around in real life you are jostling a rectangular skin up and down.

3 The Earth

At present your options for places to go are limited to Earth or, if you are lucky and incredibly wealthy, low Earth orbit. Why not take a trip to another version of Earth?^[3] It is one that should be comforting for those who cling to the flat Earth theory as well.

There are several versions of Earth available in Minecraft. One is just a little bit smaller than the real one but is still 16200 by 32400 blocks across, making it a 1:1500 scale model. Each area of the planet is recreated in one of the biomes available in Minecraft’s repertoire. For some though this is not nearly close enough to the real thing.

The “Built the World” project is working on making a 1:1 scale model of the Earth in Minecraft. Over 100,000 Minecraft players have expressed interest in helping to build this new world. Given the huge nature of the project different teams will work on different areas and their creations will stitched together at a later date.

2 Los Angeles

Los Angeles is one of the most visited cities in the world and attracts people to its hustle and bustle. Imagine having it all to yourself? Well now you can, sort of, in Los Angelcraft. Not meant as a perfect representation of Los Angeles it is instead inspired by the city in its style. There is everything from towering buildings that literally scrape the Minecraft world’s sky to little houses in the suburbs. If you’ve ever dreamt of owning property in the City of Angels then this might be your best bet.

Each of the buildings is lovingly furnished inside as well as stunning outside. This was a labour of love for the creator – someone who has never actually been to Los Angeles.

1 Westeros

It’s safe to say that the final season of Game of Thrones was… divisive. If divisive means universally panned. So why not play out your own adventure in a stunningly detailed version of Westeros?^[4]

Coming in at 22,000 by 59,000 blocks it may not be quite the size of the Game of Thrones (in real life) but hundreds of people have created almost every location mentioned in the books or shown on screen. Something like the Wall is relatively easy to build, being just huge blocks of ice. But the capital city of King’s Landing features the Red Keep palace and Iron Throne but it is the city itself that is most impressive. There are precisely 4,788 individual homes in the city and they are all unique. It took 4 months to build the city, and then the creators completely rebuilt it to take advantage of new materials and textures added to the game.

The people running WesterosCraft have a pretty stringent set of rules about what can be built and what the interior design should look like. One commented “Westeros has a literacy rate of 0.1%, limiting it to the upper classes. When I see books in a low/middle class home, I want to gouge my eyes out.” Those readers waiting for George R. R. Martin to finish his next book are used to that feeling…

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To most, the Philistines were nothing more than characters in Bible stories. They were the army that sent Goliath to fight David, the nation that dominated Israel during the time of Samson, and not much more than that. They are, to most of us, nothing more than a religious story, accepted or rejected on faith.

Recently, though, archaeologists have started unearthing little pieces of their lives. The Philistines, we’ve learned, were real people—and they played a much bigger role in history than we could have realized.

10 They Were The ‘Sea Peoples’ Who Terrorized Egypt

In the 12th century BC, Egypt was terrorized by an army known only as the “Sea Peoples.” They were an unknown group from an unknown land, raiding the coasts of the Mediterranean on massive warships.

Egypt was powerless against this unknown army at their shores. This was a time when Egypt was at the height of its power, but they had no idea how to hold off the Sea Peoples. “They came boldly sailing in their warships from the midst of the sea,” Ramses II wrote, “none being able to withstand them.”

It’s one of the greatest mysteries in history, and there’s still a lot we don’t know about these people. Thanks to records left in the tombs of the pharaohs, though, we do know a few things. The Sea Peoples were made up of multiple tribes, one of which were called the “Peleset”—an Egyptian word that most agree means “Philistines.”

The Philistines, then, were more than just bullies picking on Israel. There were world-conquerors from another land, and they dominated the entire Mediterranean.

9 They Had Superior Technology

We actually know what the Philistines looked like. The Egyptians carved images of them, along with the other Sea Peoples, in their temples, and it’s easy to pick out the Philistines. They wore tall, feathered headdresses, and they definitely stand out.

They also had technologies the Egyptians had never seen. The Sea Peoples’ ships were beyond anything the Egyptians had ever encountered, and they were early pioneers in archery and iron.

The equipment they brought with them altered the development of the world. They came from a place that had built its equipment separately from the Egyptians and the Canaanites, and they brought their technology into the area. When those technologies mingled, it led to some major breakthroughs.

8 They May Have Been Greek

Nobody knows for sure where the Philistines came from. We know that they showed up, seemingly out of thin air, in the 12th century and that they were incredibly powerful and well-equipped. Our best guess is that they came from Greece, specifically Mycenae. Archaeologists have found Philistine artwork, and in the words of one archaeologist, it gives “overwhelming evidence” that they came from Mycenae.

A lot of their pottery has survived, and it’s very different from what their neighbors in Canaan made. Instead, it seems to be drawn from Mycenaen traditions, suggesting that they developed their culture in Greece. That Greek influence is especially present in their oldest artifact. As the Philistines stayed in Canaan, their art changed and became more like their neighbors’.

Not everyone is convinced that the Philistines were Greek, but we’ll know for sure soon enough. Historians are running DNA tests on Philistine skeletons discovered in Ashkelon, and the results will reveal the truth.

7 They Helped Egypt Conquer The Middle East

One of the most famous Egyptian artifacts is called the Merneptah Stele. It’s famous because it’s one of the few artifacts that mention Israel by name—but it tells far more than that.

Pharaoh Merneptah had the mention inscribed to boast that he had conquered the Middle East. “Canaan has been plundered into every sort of woe,” he declares. “Israel is laid waste.” All of his neighbors, he boasts, are now under Egyptian rule. Under his sword, Merneptah claims, all lands are united and pacified.

It’s a huge moment in Egyptian history, but according to historian Eric Cline, Merneptah is probably just taking credit for the work of the Philistines and the Sea Peoples. In the year the stele was engraved, the Sea Peoples were wreaking havoc in the Middle East. They slaughtered thousands of people in every one of the countries Merneptah claims to have pacified.

Egypt could handle the Philistines’ raids a little better than their neighbors. All they had to do was march into the lands that the Sea Peoples had destroyed and claim the smoldering remains.

6 They Helped Israel Take Canaan

Egypt wasn’t the only country that took advantage of the devastation wrought by the Sea Peoples. At the same time, Israel went to war with Canaan. This was, in the Bible, the moment that the Israelites reach the Promised Land.

According to Cline’s theory, the Israelites might just owe that victory to the Philistines. Cline believes that the Israelites arrived in Canaan shortly after Merneptah conquered it. The Israelites would have still been recovering from the raids of the Sea Peoples and the pillaging of the Egyptians—and those raids wouldn’t have stopped.

After Merneptah’s victory, the Sea Peoples continued their attacks. They were too much for Egypt to handle, and shortly after conquering Canaan, they lost control of it. The Israelites would have arrived shortly after Canaan lost Egyptian protection and at a time when they, too, were at their weakest.

If Cline is right, the Israelites owe one of their greatest victories to the nation that would become their greatest enemy.

5 They Brought Opium To Israel

The Philistines brought more than just weapons with them; they brought plants, too. There are at least 70 plant species that didn’t appear in Israel until the 12th century BC, and every indication suggests that the Philistines brought them there.

Some of those plants are things that, today, seem inseparable from our concept of Israel. According to a report by Bar-Ilan University, sycamores, coriander, cumin, and bay trees were all brought into the area by the Philistines. Before they arrived, not a single one was there.

The Philistines also brought opium. By the 12th century BC, people knew what effect opium could have. The Philistines knew what it was—and there’s every reason to believe they made use of it.

4 Ramses III Crushed Them

The Sea Peoples wreaked havoc on Egypt during the reigns of Ramses II and Merneptah—but they would meet their match in Ramses III.

The Philistines and the other Sea Peoples united together in an assault on Egypt, determined, according to an inscription Ramses III left in a temple, to burn Egypt to the ground. “They came with fire prepared before them, forward to Egypt,” Ramses III wrote. “Their hearts were confident, full of their plans.”

Ramses III blocked off the rivers with enough warships to form a wall and filled the coast with soldiers. He personally marched to the front lines and fought with his men. The Sea Peoples were crushed. “Those who reached my boundary,” Ramses III boasted, “their seed is not; their heart and their soul are finished forever and ever.”

3 The Egyptians Cut Off Their Genitals

Ramses III didn’t stop at killing the Philistines. These people had tormented his nation for years. He mutilated their bodies in the worst ways imaginable.

Egyptian soldiers were ordered to count the dead by chopping off their hands, their heads, and even their genitals. Their body parts were taken to the pharaoh and measured and counted by his advisors. This, to Ramses III, was a great victory. He even had pictures carved into the walls of his temples that show his men presenting him with piles of severed penises.

It was more than just dehumanizing. According to the Egyptian religion, mutilating the dead Sea Peoples meant that they had no chance of surviving the afterlife. The Egyptians truly hated these people. They weren’t satisfied to stop at killing their mortal bodies. They destroyed their immortal souls as well.

2 The Egyptians Enslaved Them

After holding off the Sea Peoples’ attack, the Egyptians marched into their lands and crushed them. “I have taken away their land and their boundaries,” Ramses III wrote. “They are added to mine.”

The Philistines became subjects of the pharaoh. “I settled them in strongholds bound in my name,” Ramses III wrote. “I taxed them all, in clothing and grain from the store-houses and granaries each year.” Paying taxes, though, was likely a lucky fate for a Philistine. The drawings on Egypt’s walls show many more being dragged off in chains to slavery.

The strong houses, it’s believed, were in modern Palestine. The Egyptians put the Philistines right next to Israel. Over the next centuries, these neighbors would squabble and fight in wars that would define the future history of the Jews. In that moment, a conflict began that still echoes today.

1 They Brought The World Into A Dark Age

The Philistines’ new home was in the center of a trading hub. Over the next few years, they would gain some independence from Egypt, and their squabbles and battles with their neighbors would spark one of the most significant moments in human history.

The Philistines are believed to have cut off the supply of tin that was being traded around the Mediterranean. This was more than just a minor inconvenience: That tin was the key to making bronze, and this was the Bronze Age.

Over the next 200 years, the Philistines plunged their neighbors into a dark age. Major empires, including the Canaanites, the Hittites, Cyprus, and Mycenae, all collapsed. The Middle East was plunged into one of the darkest periods of human history.

Those who survived made the switch from bronze to iron. A new age of iron had dawned, brought on, in a large part, by a nation that, until recently, we knew almost nothing about.

The advent of scanning equipment has been a godsend for scientists. The ability to reveal contents without having to open up fragile artifacts or dig into the ground brings experts closer to the facts than ever before. But as instantly as scans can solve ancient enigmas, they can turn everything into the sort of mess that researchers love to tangle with. From discovering architecture that makes no sense to having artifacts turn out to be something entirely different than previously thought, scans have become an invaluable tool for understanding the real history of the world.

10 The Viking Toolbox

Borgring is a Viking ring fortress, the fifth to be discovered in Denmark. In 2016, a metal detector sounded hopeful while hovering over a clump of soil. Archaeologists took the small, earth-encrusted object they found to a local hospital. Graciously, the medical folks gave permission for their CT scanner to be used, and it revealed one of the most valuable finds ever made at the fort: the remains of a Viking Age toolbox.

Iron was highly prized by the Vikings, and to find such a complete set of tools anywhere in the world is very rare. The wooden box is long gone, thanks to the magic of rot, but the CT scan showed what could be carpenter’s tools. The 14 pieces include what appears to be a drawplate as well as spoon drills. Most require further work to determine their exact nature. Signs of a structural collapse at the gatehouse, where the artifacts were buried 1,000 years ago, hint that the owner was forced to leave the precious tools behind.

9 England’s Lost Roads

A clear sign of Roman conquest, apart from the hordes of soldiers, was well-engineered roads appearing all over the place. Britain in the first century AD was no different. The Romans stamped an imposing network all over the countryside. Stripped of their stones or farmed over, the roads’ disappearance erased what was known of the armies’ travels from one city or town to another.

Some of the ancient highways have come to light. Since 1998, the UK’s Environment Agency has lasered over 72 percent of England’s terrain and has made the scans available to the public.

The project, meant to study flooding and coastlines, has provided a wealth of information for those trying to fill in the gaps. One history hobbyist, David Ratledge, who has spent 50 years sniffing out Roman routes, used the data to find a 17-kilometer (11 mi) stretch of road linking Ribchester to Lancaster. Two other archaeologists also plumbed the Agency’s research and discovered a lost part of a Roman path called the Maiden Way.

8 Healthy Pompeii Victims

When Mount Vesuvius destroyed the city of Pompeii in AD 79, it left a petrified wedge of history behind. Life in the city froze for 1,800 years, providing a smorgasbord for modern researchers. In 2015, they managed to peek inside the iconic casts of citizens and animals found throughout the ruins.

The casts’ exteriors were good for studying faces, what people wore, and sometimes the reaction to their impending death, but scans were needed to investigate the insides. The CAT machine used in the study could only admit remains friendly to a 70-centimeter-wide (28 in) space, which meant that most corpses only had their heads and chests scanned.

An orthodontist looked at the ancient teeth and noted that the people from Pompeii were overall very healthy. Their dental health showed a diet better than most modern eaters, with few sugars and a lot of fruits and veggies. This goes against the popular image of the outrageous food- and wine-gorging banquets held by the Roman elite.

7 How Lucy Died

The 3.18-million-year-old human ancestor called Lucy made waves when she turned up in Ethiopia in 1974. An adult Australopithecus afarensis, Lucy is the oldest upright-walking hominid ever documented. Ever since she was found, scholars have debated fiercely about her preferred environment. Was she an exclusive ground walker, or did she, on occasion, also take a good swing between the branches? How she died might provide the answer.

A high-resolution CT study in 2016 showed that Lucy has several fractures. The pelvis, ribs, knees, ankles, and arm all cracked during an event matching an impact with the ground from a 10-meter (33 ft) height. Since there are no signs of healing, this is likely what killed the famous hominid. While nobody can say for sure, it’s highly possible that she fell out of a tree. Ironically, experts believe Lucy’s evolved ability to walk upright could have made her climbing ability less sure.

6 The Black Sea Flood

Dr. Robert Ballard is no stranger to great discoveries. He found the German battleship Bismarck as well as the Titanic. He may have even found the Biblical flood. The marine scientist was more interested in finding a civilization that had perished during the inundation of the Black Sea than proving that Noah’s boat floated, though.

In 2000, Ballard’s ship used sonar to map a 500-square-kilometer (200 mi²) area near Sinop, Turkey. Flood myths linked to the area include the Epic of Gilgamesh and the Genesis deluge. Video-equipped robots investigated anomalies 90 meters (300 ft) down and found two ancient ships belonging to the unlucky community. Then came stone tools, ceramics, and a foundation measuring 3.7 meters (12 ft) by 7.6 meters (26 ft), complete with a collapsed home and roof structures. More wattle and daub shelters also turned up.

The unknown culture lived next to the Black Sea when it was still a freshwater lake. Geological scars tell of the eventual disaster. Around 7,000 years ago, the Mediterranean Sea is believed to have risen and fed into the lake, rapidly submerging almost 250,000 square kilometers (100,000 mi²) of land.

5 The 1800 Earthquake

When a massive earthquake shook the San Diego area in 1800, its origins remained obscured for 200 years. Despite trying, nobody could identify the fault that bucked. In 2012, scientists renewed the hunt for this mysterious rupture.

The main suspect was the Clark Strand, located within the San Jacinto Fault Zone. Using a light aircraft, the team laser-scanned the geological features along the fault line. This technique allowed them to see the ground contours perfectly, even where they were covered with thick vegetation. To double-check the results, the researchers went old-school and measured the entire thing again, this time on foot.

Comparing the field mission data with the laser results and throwing in some radiocarbon dating, too, they identified a telltale displacement that had moved 4 meters (13 ft) around the time of the 1800 shaker. The size of the shift fits with the San Diego event’s velocity and effectively identifies the Clark Strand as the culprit. Two centuries is the average time that the fault takes to produce another major rumble, which means that the Clark Strand is already overdue.

4 The Triple Pyramid

El Castillo, aka the Temple of Kukulkan, is a monument to weird architecture. Built by the Maya, it stands today as part of the Chichen Itza complex in Mexico. During the 1930s, archaeologists were intrigued to find that a second pyramid nestled within. The structure was about 10 meters (33 ft) shorter than the roughly 30-meter (100 ft) Kukulkan pyramid.

In 2015, it became clear that the whole thing was constructed on a cenote (sinkhole lake). The Maya held such lakes as sacred, which could be why the location was chosen.

Incredibly, a year after that, scanning revealed a third pyramid. Sitting at the heart of the second, it is also 10 meters shorter than the pyramid above it. The pyramids weren’t created at the same time. The baby pyramid was constructed between AD 550 and 800 and the second between 800 and 1000. The visible El Castillo is the newest, as it was completed somewhere between 1050 and 1300.

3 The Hawk Infant

When the Maidstone Museum in England received a hefty donation, staff decided to brush up on their Ancient Civilizations gallery. They wheeled a trove of artifacts over to the Kent Institute of Medicine and Surgery for a CT scan in 2016. Such a noninvasive technique was perfect to inspect the fragile collection without damaging it.

One item was tagged as “A mummified hawk with linen and cartonnage, Ptolemaic period (323 B.C.–30 B.C.).” The minute sarcophagus contained a wrapped mummy up to 2,300 years old. After it was scanned, the results shocked the Institute experts. Instead of a bird of prey, the tiny coffin contained a human fetus that had been miscarried at around 20 weeks’ gestation.

This begs the question of why a child would be passed off as a bird. One fringe theory speculated that it was the love child of a pharaoh, hidden to avoid a scandal. However, the Maidstone Museum pointedly stated that there is little evidence for such a claim.

2 Shakespeare’s Skull

William Shakespeare’s remains haven’t always been treated with respect. Being one of the most revered writers in existence seems to have turned him into a target for fans craving bits of Shakespeare as mementos. In 1879, such a desecration was reported in the UK’s Argosy magazine. The story claimed that the Bard’s head had been removed by trophy hunters during the previous century.

To find out if this was true, the Stratford-upon-Avon church where Shakespeare was buried gave permission for the 400-year-old grave to be scanned in 2016. Using ground-penetrating radar, it soon became obvious that not all was peachy. Buried beneath the church floor, next to his wife, Shakespeare’s nameless tomb wasn’t uniform when the results came back. The head area looked different, almost interfered with, while the rest of his body had no such signatures.

Shakespeare’s grave isn’t allowed to be opened, but researchers believe the radar images back up the story that his skull was stolen.

1 Dome Fields

A 2015 scanning project of the ruin-rich Angkor sites in Cambodia turned up something inexplicable. Archaeologists coined the term “dome field” to describe the mysterious sites. Helicopters with laser equipment scanned the Cambodian jungle, covering some 1,904 square kilometers (735 mi²) when they found strange, earthen mounds. There was nothing random about the heaps; they were arranged in perfect grids. Found within the remains of 1,000-year-old cities, the pointy shapes refuse to yield their secrets.

A ground study and even excavations of the mounds could not determine their purpose. Most of the cities that were scanned belonged to the Khmer Empire, which is credited with archaeological wonders such as the temple of Angkor Wat. One city in particular, Mahendraparvata, appears to have much of its roughly 50-square-kilometer (20 mi²) surface covered with the peculiar grids. They remain one of the most puzzling discoveries to come from the Khmer culture.