The medieval mindset turned death into a strange theater of customs that would make modern sensibilities cringe. In this top 10 weird tour of how the Middle Ages handled dying, we explore everything from bustling graveyards to the eerie practice of testing corpses for blood. Strap in for a bizarre journey through the macabre habits that defined a whole era.

10 Living in Cemeteries

In medieval Europe, cemeteries were far from the silent, somber places we imagine today. They buzzed with everyday life: local elections, courtroom trials, sermons, and even theatrical performances took place among the tombstones. Even the less reputable trades, such as prostitution, found a foothold within the hallowed grounds.

Why This Is One of the Top 10 Weird Facts

Historian Philippe Aries notes that these burial grounds, being church property, escaped taxation and thus became prime real‑estate for merchants and small‑business owners seeking a tax‑free venue for commerce.

9 Cruentation: Bleeding Corpses as Legal Evidence

Cruentation was the chilling belief that a dead body would begin to bleed when its murderer laid a hand upon it, as if the corpse itself could scream for vengeance. This notion permeated medieval legal thinking and even found its way into literary works.

King James’s 1597 treatise *Daemonologie* captures the idea vividly: “In a secret murder, if the dead carcass be at any time thereafter handled by the murderer, it will gush out blood as if the blood were crying to heaven for revenge on the assassin.”

The practice carried real legal weight, serving as a courtroom test from Germanic tribes through the seventeenth century. It rested on the belief that a corpse retained a spark of life, granting it a supernatural ability to reveal its killer.

8 Ossuaries

Overcrowded churchyards forced medieval planners to get creative. To make room for new burials, they exhumed older skeletons and neatly stacked them in ossuaries, also called charnel houses.

These bone‑filled chambers soon transcended practicality. Artisans arranged skulls and femurs into intricate patterns, turning death into a decorative art form that could rival any cathedral fresco.

Beyond aesthetics, ossuaries carried a spiritual message. Displayed alongside the inscription “You are what we were— we are what you shall be,” they urged onlookers to contemplate their own mortality and repent before it was too late.

7 Revenants and Their Theological Problems

The notion that the dead could walk among the living was widespread in medieval folklore. Chroniclers such as William of Newburgh recorded tales of corpses rising from graves and haunting the living.

One vivid account from Melrose Abbey in Scotland describes monks being visited repeatedly by a deceased priest who “groaned and murmured in an alarming fashion.” These stories sparked intense debate among theologians.

Revenants presented a thorny theological dilemma: were they miraculous signs of divine intervention or demonic assaults? The prevailing view held that a demon‑possessed corpse could be neutralized by exorcism, returning the body to a lifeless state.

6 The Fear of Sudden Death

Unlike modern preferences for swift, painless endings, medieval society dreaded sudden death. A rapid demise was thought to be the fate of murderers, suicides, and sinners, marking them for eternal wandering.

People believed that an unexpected death prevented the soul from receiving the necessary last rites and confession, causing the spirit to linger among the living as a restless ghost.

To combat this, the *Ars Moriendi* (The Art of Dying) manuals offered guidance on achieving a “good death.” These treatises contrasted serene scenes of families praying with graphic depictions of sinners dying amid devils and monstrous beasts.

5 Danse Macabre

The “Dance of Death” was a popular artistic motif that depicted figures from every social stratum being led away by skeletal dancers, reminding viewers that death spares no one, regardless of rank or riches.

Surprisingly, the motif often carried a darkly comic edge. Some illustrations show nuns caught in illicit embraces, while physicians are portrayed examining vials of their own urine, challenged by mocking skeletons to cure their own demise.

One notable exception appears in the Danse Macabre of La Chaise‑Dieu (France, 15th century), where Death gently covers its face before carrying away a small child, perhaps out of a rare moment of compassion.

4 Transi Tombs

Transi tombs feature effigies of the deceased in a state of advanced decomposition, sometimes being devoured by grotesque creatures, toads, or serpents. The term “transi” refers to a body in the process of decaying yet still recognizably human.

Many of these monuments employ a two‑tiered design: the upper level shows the individual in peaceful prayer, while the lower tier displays the same figure in a morbid, rotting state, underscoring the fleeting nature of earthly glory.

The tomb of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany in Saint‑Denis (Paris, 16th century) exemplifies this practice. The lower effigies reveal detailed embalming stitches on their abdomens, highlighting the artist’s meticulous attention to the realities of death.

3 Frau Welt

Frau Welt statues, found adorning many German cathedrals, present a striking duality. From the front, they depict youthful, radiant figures embodying health and happiness; turn them around, and the back reveals rotting flesh, maggots, worms, snakes, and toads.

These unsettling sculptures serve as allegorical warnings: the allure of worldly beauty and abundance is fleeting, and beneath the surface lies moral decay and corruption.

2 Apparent Death

Medieval physicians relied on the absence of breath, movement, and sensation to declare death, yet they sometimes resorted to bizarre tests to confirm the finality. In the epic *La Chanson de Roland*, Charlemagne bites Roland’s toe hoping to rouse him.

Bernard de Gordon suggested louder calls, pulling hair, twisting fingers, and even pricking with a needle. If these failed, a small ball of wool placed near the mouth would reveal lingering breath by the movement of the fibers.

Such “apparent death” cases were rare, as bodies were typically kept at home for several days before burial, allowing ample time for any revival signs to emerge.

1 The Cult of Relics

The medieval cult of relics revolved around the veneration of whole saints’ bodies or their fragments, believed to possess potent healing powers.

This devotion peaked between the 11th and 13th centuries, drawing pilgrims from far‑flung regions eager to pray before these holy objects and seek intercession.

Relics were sometimes sewn into altar cloths, and many believed that the Eucharist could only be celebrated on an altar draped with such sacred fabric.

These practices underscored a profound belief that physical remnants of the holy could bridge the earthly and divine realms, offering comfort and miracles to the faithful.

When we hear the word “lead,” most of us picture old paint cans or the faint smell of a car exhaust. Yet the toxic metal has been silently infiltrating our lives for millennia. In this roundup of the 10 ways lead has poisoned us through the ages, we’ll travel from ancient banquet tables to modern highways, uncovering the surprising ways this shiny gray metal slipped into food, art, and industry. Buckle up for a wild ride through history’s most covert contaminant.

10 ways lead: A Toxic Timeline

10 Ancient Rome

In 1983, Canadian researcher Jerome Nriagu examined the dietary records of thirty Roman emperors spanning from 30 BC to AD 220. He discovered that these rulers regularly consumed food laced with lead. The culprit? A popular Roman practice of boiling down grapes into a sweet syrup called sapa in copper kettles. The acidic grape juice leached massive amounts of lead from the copper, turning a simple flavoring into a potent poison.

Given the emperors’ legendary appetites, chronic exposure to this lead‑laden syrup could have contributed to serious health issues—and, some argue, even the empire’s decline. While Nriagu’s theory remains debated, other scholars point to the Tiber River’s pipes, which delivered water containing roughly a hundred times more lead than pristine spring water, as further evidence of a city steeped in lead.

9 The First Artificial Sweetener

Before sugar became the world’s favorite sweetener, humanity relied on a decidedly less tasty option: lead acetate. Known in Roman times as sapa, this compound’s naturally sweet taste made it a popular additive for wine when sugar was scarce.

Fast‑forward to 1047, when Pope Clement II died abruptly. A 1959 autopsy revealed chronic lead poisoning, likely from lead‑acetate‑sweetened wine—a habit that persisted among German clergy who adopted the Roman custom.

Even the legendary composer Ludwig van Beethoven may have suffered from low‑level lead exposure through his beloved wines. Analyses of his skeletal remains showed elevated lead levels, a finding many researchers link to his eventual deafness.

8 Toxic Rum

Archaeologists exhumed seventeen men from the Royal Naval Hospital cemetery in Antigua and discovered alarming lead concentrations in their bones. While a typical bone contains 5–30 ppm of lead, fourteen of the sailors showed levels ranging from 13 ppm up to a staggering 336 ppm—well above the 80 ppm threshold for lead poisoning.

One plausible source? 18th‑century rum distilleries that inadvertently introduced lead into the spirit. The British Royal Navy routinely issued rum rations to its crews, meaning many sailors likely ingested lead‑tainted liquor over extended periods.

If true, the implications stretch far beyond Antigua, suggesting that countless naval personnel stationed in the West Indies may have suffered similar chronic poisoning from their daily rum allotments.

7 Artists And Lead

In 1713, Italian physician Bernardino Ramazzini documented a puzzling syndrome among painters he dubbed “painter’s colic.” He noted chronic illness, pallid complexion, and melancholy—symptoms later linked to lead exposure from the pigments artists mixed into their palettes.

This condition, known as saturnism, plagued many celebrated creators. Studies suggest that the likes of Michelangelo, Francisco Goya, Candido Portinari, and possibly Vincent van Gogh all suffered from lead‑induced ailments, as their bones reveal elevated lead levels consistent with long‑term exposure to lead‑laden paints.

6 American Pewter

During America’s early colonial period, everyday tableware—cups, plates, and serving dishes—were often coated in a thin layer of lead‑rich pewter. The metal also found its way into musket balls, meaning virtually every colonist who fired a weapon was exposed.

Wealthier colonists in the 1600s were the most frequent users of pewter, allowing modern researchers to gauge social status by measuring lead in skeletal remains. One striking example is Colonel Joseph Bridger, a prominent Virginian who died in 1686. His exhumed bones showed a lead concentration of 149 ppm—about seven times the average—highlighting the hazardous luxury of elite dining ware.

5 Medieval Lead Glaze

Upper‑class Europeans in the Middle Ages prized lead‑glazed silverware and dishes for their shine and ease of cleaning. A 2007 study of six cemeteries across Germany to Denmark revealed a stark divide: while lead was virtually absent in the bones of rural serfs, urban dwellers displayed dangerously high levels.

The danger stemmed from acidic foods interacting with the lead glaze. Salty or acidic fare stored in lead‑coated containers caused the glaze to dissolve, leaching lead into the food. Since such refined tableware was scarce outside cities, lead poisoning became a marker of urban, affluent living, further distinguishing city folk from their countryside counterparts.

4 Samurai Makeup Poisoning

During Japan’s Edo period (1603–1867), samurai families adhered to strict beauty standards that included a stark white face powder. When researchers examined the skeletal remains of 70 individuals—men, women, and children—from that era, they uncovered lead concentrations up to 120 times the toxic threshold in the bones of samurai children.

Environmental lead levels in Edo‑period Japan were relatively low, so the source was unexpected: aristocratic women’s white makeup, which contained lead. Infants who were nursed or otherwise exposed to the powder likely absorbed the poison, leading to severe health consequences, including death and lasting neurological damage.

3 Lead In Commercial Paints

Even after the hazards of lead were widely known, paint manufacturers persisted in using lead pigments throughout the 20th century. By the 1920s, up to 70 % of a paint can’s weight could be lead‑based compounds. Companies even lobbied to strip safety warnings from product labels.

A tiny chip of such paint could trigger convulsions in a child. When cases emerged, the industry blamed “uneducable” minority parents for their children’s injuries, a disturbing example of victim‑blaming that delayed regulation.

Legislative action finally arrived: Maryland banned lead in children’s toys in 1949 (though the ban was later reversed), New York City prohibited interior paints with more than 1 % lead in 1959, the federal government barred lead paint in public housing in 1971, and a comprehensive ban on lead in virtually all paints took effect in 1978.

2 Ghost Factories

Although U.S. lead‑smelting plants largely shut down by the late 20th century, their legacy lingers in the soil of former “ghost factories.” From the 1930s to the 1960s, dozens of facilities processed lead ore, leaving behind contaminated grounds that still pose health risks.

Environmental scientist William Eckel estimated that up to 400 shuttered factories could harbor dangerous lead levels. He personally funded soil testing at eight sites; seven returned positive for elevated lead, underscoring the pervasive nature of the contamination.

Despite an EPA mandate in 2001 to remediate these sites, action has been minimal. Children playing near these abandoned plants remain especially vulnerable to chronic lead exposure.

1 Leaded Gasoline

In 1921, chemist Thomas Midgley Jr. introduced tetraethyl lead, a compound that dramatically boosted gasoline performance. This additive, however, turned every vehicle into a moving source of airborne lead, persisting in the fuel supply until its 1986 ban.

Following the phase‑out, blood‑lead concentrations among U.S. residents fell by roughly 75 %. Prior to the ban, an estimated 5,000 Americans succumbed each year to lead‑related heart disease, illustrating the massive public‑health toll of the poisoned fuel.

Researchers have also linked leaded gasoline to spikes in violent crime. Crime rates surged about twenty years after the additive’s introduction, then began a steady decline after the ban, suggesting a direct correlation between atmospheric lead and aggressive behavior.

Today, the story continues through the work of writers like Gordon Gora, who chronicles these hidden histories while striving to make a living. You can reach him at the protected email address provided in the original article.

The saga of the 10 forgotten vikings begins in June 793, when an Anglo‑Saxon priest lamented that “heathen men came and miserably destroyed God’s church on Lindisfarne, with plunder and slaughter.” Those raids marked the start of the Viking Age, yet while many Norse marauders have entered legend, a handful of truly terrifying leaders have slipped through the cracks of history.

10 Forgotten Vikings: The Untold Legends

10 Hastein

The Viking chief Hastein had a long and bloody career raiding England and France. But in his day, he was most notorious for his expedition to the Mediterranean in AD 859. After raiding Algeria, the Vikings found an island to wait out the winter. To their astonishment, the Mediterranean remained warm all through the winter months.

Hastein was also surprised to learn he was near Rome. The headquarters of the Church would surely be a glittering prize, and Hastein resolved to plunder it. Sailing down the west coast of Italy, the Vikings came across the greatest town they had ever seen. It was surely Rome.

Hastein knew the walls were too mighty for him to take the city by force. Instead, he pulled ashore and had his men explain that their dying leader wanted a Christian burial. The Italians were touched and agreed to allow Hastein carried through the gates. Of course, the chieftain soon sprang from his coffin and sacked the city.

He sailed away loaded with loot. and it was apparently some time before he learned that he had mistaken a town called Luna for the great city of Rome.

9 Sigurd The Stout

Sigurd the Stout was the Norse ruler of Orkney, a large island on the north coast of Scotland. He extended the power of Orkney over the Hebrides islands and large areas of mainland Scotland.

He was well known for his use of a raven banner, a mysterious pagan totem flown by several Viking raiders. The sagas say that Sigurd’s raven banner was made by his mother (a powerful shaman) and made him invincible in battle.

However, Sigurd was overwhelmed by the Norse king Olaf Tryggvason, who forced him to convert to Christianity and took his son back to Norway as a hostage. The son died, and Sigurd was able to renounce his conversion. He took his raven banner with him to the Battle of Clontarf, where he was killed by the forces of the Irish king Brian Boru.

8 Rider

The Persian philosopher Abu Miskawayh and the Kurdish chronicler Ali ibn al-Athir both recorded a raid on the distant Caspian Sea in AD 943. According to Miskawayh, a powerful Viking Rus fleet ported overland to the Caspian and then rowed up the Kura River to attack the rich city of Barda’a. The leader of the expedition rode a donkey, but the Muslim writers apparently didn’t know his name.

After crushing a force of 5,000, the Vikings looted Barda’a and slaughtered many of the citizens after being pelted with stones. The Persian governor of the region brought up reinforcements and placed the city under siege, but his men were intimidated by the invaders and the Vikings were only forced to retreat after an epidemic of dysentery thinned their ranks.

The donkey-riding chief died in a breakout attempt, but his surviving men were able to slip away at night and made it to the safety of their ships. The locals at once dug up the graves they left behind to retrieve the valuable swords buried with the dead warriors.

7 Traveled

The Vikings returned to the Caspian in the 1040s, when the warrior Ingvar the Far-Traveled led an expedition south from Sweden. After spending a few years with the Rus, Ingvar headed off again in search of plunder.

Georgian chroniclers mention a group of Vikings who helped King Bagrat IV of Georgia in a war against some rebels. These are generally assumed to be Ingvar’s men, especially since the landscape in a saga about him matches up well with the Georgian terrain.

After that, Ingvar is believed to have headed further east, into Muslim lands around the Caspian sea. The sagas and various runestones agree that his entire expedition died of disease there, a rather underwhelming end for such a powerful warrior.

6 Brodir Of Man

After Brian Boru became High king of Ireland in AD 1002, Viking power in the Emerald Island was seriously under threat. The Norse king of Dublin, Sigtrygg Silkbeard, decided to back a rebellion against Brian. He was encouraged by his mother Gormflaith, who was Brian’s estranged wife.

At Gornflaith’s urging, Sigtrygg recruited warriors from all over the Viking world, including Sigurd the Stout. He also sent word to the Isle of Man, which was ruled by two brothers named Brodir and Ospak, who were reputedly powerful sorcerers. Brodir agreed to fight, but Ospak thought that they would lose and he ducked out under cover of darkness to join Brian.

At the Battle of Clontarf, Brodir was said to have cut down dozens of Irishmen. But Clontarf was a bloodbath and Brodir sensibly ran away into the woods when the opportunity presented itself. According to Njal’s Saga, he accidentally ran into the elderly King Brian, who was waiting to hear the outcome of the battle. Overwhelming Brian’s guards, Brodir personally killed the king.

The Saga later relates that Brian’s brother Wulf the Quarrelsome later tracked Brodir down, nailed his intestines to a tree, and forced him to walk around it until they were all pulled out.

5 Raud The Strong

According to the 12th-century Icelandic poet-historian Snorri Sturluson, Raud ran afoul of King Olaf Tryggvason, who was trying to convert Norway to Christianity. Raud refused to convert and openly mocked the Christians.

This infuriated Olaf, who had Raud seized. When the stubborn pagan still refused to be baptized, Olaf had him tied down and rammed a drinking horn down his throat. Then he pushed a snake into the horn and poked it with a hot iron until it crawled down Raud’s throat and into his stomach.

According to Snorri, Raud died when the snake chewed its way out through his side. Since snakes can’t really chew, the story may be worth taking with a grain of salt.

4 Ivar The Boneless

According to Ragnar’s Saga, Ivar the Boneless was the son of the legendary warrior Ragnar Lodbrok, pictured above. That may or may not be true (the same saga has Ivar fighting a magical cow), but we do know that Ivar and his brothers commanded the Great Heathen Army, a mighty force that invaded England in 865.

They overran the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia and did serious damage to the kingdom of Mercia. King Aelle of Northumbria was tortured to death, while Edmund of East Anglia was shot full of arrows in a church. After that, Ivar returned to York and disappears from the record, leaving command of the army to his brothers.

Ivar’s nickname has been the subject of much speculation. The sagas agree that he had to be carried around on a shield, and Ragnar’s Saga claims that he had “only the like of gristle where his bones should have been.” This has led some historians to suggest that he suffered from osteogenesis imperfecta, a condition that leaves bones fragile and easily broken.

3 Imar

Before Ivar the Boneless appeared in English records, a Viking leader called Imar was active in Ireland, where he took control of Dublin and fought in numerous raids and small wars. After Ivar left England, Imar reappeared in Scotland, where he besieged the great stronghold at Dumbarton Rock.

The siege lasted four months, but the Vikings were eventually able to cut off the water supply, and the fortress surrendered. The king of Strathclyde was taken prisoner and, it took 200 ships to carry away the loot. Imar then returned to Ireland, where he died of a “hideous disease” in 873.

Most historians speculate that Imar and Ivar are the same person, although the Scotch-Irish records never make reference to the “boneless” nickname.

2 Gunderedo

The earliest Viking raid on Spain sacked the Muslim city of Seville in 844. Subsequent attacks on Muslim Spain went poorly, and the largest Viking campaign in Spain focused on the Christian north.

The raid started when Richard of Normandy called in Danish assistance for a campaign in northern France. Once that wrapped up, the Danes raided Galicia, in the northwest corner of Spain. They were led by a “sea-king” the Spanish called Gunderedo.

Gunderedo’s men pillaged the great shrine of Santiago de Compostela and killed the bishop in battle. After that, no Galician was willing to challenge the Danes and they ran riot across the countryside for three years. Its not clear why they eventually left, but probably Galicia was too poor to hold their attention for longer.

1 Thorstein The Red

Thorstein the Red was the son of King Olaf of Dublin and his famous queen, Aud the Deep-Minded. Aud’s family ruled the Hebrides, and Olaf had married her in the hope of gaining an alliance. But the islanders continued to raid around Dublin, and Olaf eventually sent Aud and the infant Thorstein home in fury.

Olaf’s power grew, and he took control of the Hebrides, forcing Aud to flee to Scotland with her son. Thorstein grew up into a fierce warrior, who raided across Scotland and “was ever victorious.” The desperate Scots even granted him an independent kingdom in the northern tip of Scotland.

But Thorstein wanted more, and the Scots conspired to have him murdered in AD 900. Heartbroken, Aud took her followers to Iceland, where she became the ruler of a powerful clan. She was buried on the beach, so that the tide would always wash over her grave.

The Middle Ages continue to captivate modern imaginations, from epic fantasy sagas to blockbuster films. Yet the popular picture of medieval magic often glosses over the bewildering complexity of actual medieval belief. Here are 10 surprising facts that reveal how magic truly lived, breathed, and was regulated in medieval Europe.

10 Belief Was Considered A Pagan Superstition

10 surprising facts: Belief Was Considered A Pagan Superstition

In the early Middle Ages, openly admitting to magical belief could land you in hot water. The influential late‑antique theologian St. Augustine argued that demons could not bestow genuine magical powers; at most, they could trick people into thinking they possessed such abilities. This skeptical stance filtered into most early medieval legal and theological writings.

A Carolingian capitulary addressing the newly conquered Saxony explicitly forbade the killing of a woman suspected of witchcraft, labeling the act a “pagan manner” offense punishable by death. Likewise, the 10th‑century text Canon Episcopi instructed priests to warn their flocks that the devil’s “phantasms” were mere falsehoods.

9 Sailors From A Realm Of Clouds Would Steal Crops

Even church condemnations didn’t halt popular belief in the extraordinary. Around the same time as the Saxon capitulary, Bishop Agobard of Lyons penned a treatise denouncing magic, yet he also recorded what people truly thought. He noted that weather mages were believed capable of conjuring storms, and, astonishingly, that sky‑bound sailors from a “realm of clouds” collaborated with these mages to pilfer crops.

While Agobard himself didn’t mention crop theft, later chronicler Gervise of Tillsbury repeated stories of aerial sailors, even recounting a tale of one who “drowns” in the earthly atmosphere centuries later. Scholars suggest the superior mirage—a atmospheric phenomenon that makes distant ships appear suspended in the sky—may have inspired these sky‑borne narratives.

8 Most Witchcraft Trials Involved A Single Defendant

While early medieval authorities were cautious about magic, philosophical shifts by the 14th century rendered it a punishable crime. Yet medieval witchcraft trials differed sharply from the later mass hysteria of the 16th and 17th centuries. Large‑scale prosecutions of unrelated individuals were exceptionally rare.

The overwhelming majority of cases centered on a lone accused, or at most a small, tightly knit group—often household members, servants linked to their masters, or political conspirators. One notable exception was Philip the Fair’s sweeping executions during the Templar suppression, which involved many individuals.

7 Religious Figures Practiced Magic As Well

The stereotypical image of a witch hunt always includes a priest or monk, but history shows that clergy sometimes dabbled in magic themselves—especially when rituals required scholarly knowledge and written texts. The monks of St. Augustine’s in Canterbury, for example, kept a library of thirty magic books containing instructions for summoning spirits.

Rural parish priests were occasionally summoned to perform rites that blended orthodox liturgy with magical elements. A 12th‑century English ritual aimed at boosting field fertility involved sprinkling earth with milk, honey, oil, herbs, and holy water, reciting biblical passages, and saying four Masses over the soil.

6 Not All Magic Was Serious

Medieval folk also enjoyed light‑hearted tricks akin to today’s Las Vegas shows and birthday‑party performances. A 14th‑century manuscript titled Secretum Philosophorum is essentially a compendium of amusements rather than lofty scientific treatises. It offers instructions for invisible ink pranks, objects that appear to move on their own, and escapology techniques for freeing oneself when hands are bound behind the back.

These playful experiments illustrate that medieval people appreciated entertainment that dazzled the senses, proving that not every magical practice was cloaked in gravitas or danger.

5 The Norse Were More Suspicious Of Male Magicians

Shifting our focus from Christian Europe to pre‑conversion Scandinavia, we find a gendered view of magic. While Norse men could wield runes or poetic charms—activities considered respectable—the practice of seiðr was deemed a woman’s domain. Men who engaged in seiðr were branded as unmanly and subject to ridicule.

Saga literature portrays male seiðr practitioners negatively, emphasizing their loss of masculinity. Yet the chief god Odin is explicitly linked to seiðr, though even he isn’t immune to mockery; Loki famously derides Odin for his use of this feminine magic. In contrast, women who practiced seiðr often received reverent treatment, such as Thorbjorg’s celebrated entrance in Eirik the Red’s saga, where every man felt compelled to greet her with utmost respect.

4 Late Medieval People Thought Magic Respectable Science

By the High and Late Middle Ages, pursuits like astrology had earned a place among respectable intellectual discourse. Prominent theologian Albertus Magnus, a leading natural philosopher, championed the belief that certain stones possessed curative powers and that astrology could genuinely predict future events.

Royal courts across Europe patronized astrologers and alchemists, often consulting them on critical political decisions. This patronage underscores how, in medieval eyes, magic could sit comfortably alongside emerging scientific thought.

3 Most Witchcraft Trials Were Carried Out By Secular Courts

Common lore assumes the Inquisition led the charge against witches, yet the bulk of medieval witchcraft prosecutions were administered by secular authorities. In England, for instance, records show that most trials were governmental, with accusations usually tied to other crimes such as murder or treason.

In 1258, Pope Alexander VI decreed that inquisitors should refrain from intervening in witchcraft cases unless clear heretical elements were present. Nonetheless, inquisitorial manuals—like those penned by Bernard Gui—continued to advise clergy on interrogating alleged sorcerers.

2 The 15th Century Started The Panic Around Witchcraft

The 15th century marked a turning point in witchcraft history, laying the groundwork for the massive hysteria that would erupt in the early modern era. Legal practice shifted from viewing magic as a tool for other crimes to focusing on the alleged demonic pact that supposedly underpinned all sorcery.

This period also birthed the now‑familiar notion of the witches’ Sabbath—a clandestine gathering where witches supposedly consorted with the devil. Sensationalist accounts of these Sabbaths spread rapidly, feeding public fascination and fear.

1 The Author Of The Malleus Maleficarum Was Unsuccessful In Convicting Witches

Perhaps the most infamous medieval treatise on witchcraft, the Malleus Maleficarum, emerged in the 1480s as a practical guide for conducting witch hunts and as a defense of its author, Heinrich Kramer. Kramer, a Dominican inquisitor operating in late‑15th‑century Germany, had previously attempted to prosecute alleged witches, only to provoke fierce local opposition.

Between 1482 and 1484, Kramer’s aggressive interrogation of women—particularly his invasive questioning about their sexual lives—met with resistance from local clergy. Although the pope backed his authority, Bishop Golser of Innsbruck eventually halted the trial, ordering the release of all suspects. Frustrated by this failure, Kramer composed the Malleus, inflating his successes and justifying his harsh methods.

+ Further Reading

For a deeper dive into the world of witches, warlocks, and the occult, explore these curated lists from our archives:

• 10 Ancient Books That Promise Supernatural Powers
• 10 Surprising Facts About Magic And Superstition In Ancient Rome
• 10 Folk Magic Traditions Of The Early Modern Era
• Top 10 Magical Societies

Jim Lyons is a student who is passionate about history, speculative fiction, and traditional music.

Under the iron grip of the medieval Church, sexual activity was monitored with a zeal that would make modern regulators blush. Yet, despite the heavy hand of doctrine, people still pursued pleasure. In this top 10 tantalizing rundown you’ll discover how medieval folk navigated desire, from tolerated brothels to secret birth‑control tricks.

Top 10 Tantalizing Overview

10 Prostitution Was Considered a Necessary Evil

Prostitution thrived in towns and cities throughout the Middle Ages. Although the clergy publicly condemned the trade, they largely turned a blind eye, recognizing that many men needed an outlet and that suppressing it could cause greater moral chaos. Officials feared that without regulated brothels, men might assault respectable women or, worse, turn to homosexual acts.

Even with this tacit acceptance, authorities imposed humiliating ordinances on the women involved. They were forced to wear distinctive clothing to set them apart from “respectable” ladies, confined to specific districts, and were denied any standing in a court of law. Brothels often masqueraded as bathhouses or craft workshops, where women could pose as “apprentices” to conceal their true occupation.

9 Impotence Was Grounds for Marriage Annulment

Across Europe, the law treated consummation as a vital component of a valid marriage. If a spouse could not or would not produce offspring, the partner could petition for an annulment. In some jurisdictions, a man accused of impotence had to prove his physical capability before a court, lest the marriage be declared void.

Historical records reveal dozens of such cases. One of the most famous involved King Philip II of France and his second wife, Ingeborg of Denmark, in 1198. Philip, who despised Ingeborg, oddly claimed the marriage was never consummated, pleading temporary impotence to avoid taking her as queen.

8 Women Used Contraceptives

Contrary to long‑standing scholarly belief, women in the Middle Ages did not abandon birth‑control entirely. While the Catholic Church condemned any interference with procreation, demographic studies show a noticeable decline in pregnancy rates among women over thirty, indicating the use of various contraceptive techniques.

Because written evidence was scarce—suppressed by the Church’s opposition—knowledge of these methods was passed down orally, often from midwife to midwife. Common practices included coitus interruptus and plant‑based remedies, such as pessaries crafted from lily root and rue, demonstrating a covert yet sophisticated approach to family planning.

7 The Church Thought Midwives Forced Women Into Sex With the Devil

The late medieval period saw an explosion of witch hunts, with tens of thousands—predominantly women—accused of sorcery. Among the many alleged crimes, midwifery fell under suspicion, as some demonologists claimed midwives lured young women into sexual encounters with the Devil and used unbaptized infants for dark rites.

Pope Innocent VIII’s 1484 papal bull Summis desiderantes affectibus endorsed the persecution of witches, and inquisitor Heinrich Kramer’s infamous Malleus Maleficarum singled out midwives as a particular threat. Modern scholarship, however, argues that the “midwives‑as‑witches” narrative is largely a myth, overstated by later historians such as Margaret Murray, with actual accusations being relatively rare.

6 Clergymen Could Sometimes Get Married

Marriage rules for clergy were a tangled web that shifted over centuries. In the early Byzantine era, Emperor Justinian annulled all holy‑order marriages and declared any offspring illegitimate, establishing a strict celibacy norm.

Nonetheless, enforcement was uneven. Some clerics were permitted to marry, and conversely, married men could enter holy orders—usually only if it was their first marriage and they pledged sexual continence thereafter. The Great Schism of 1054 prompted both the Eastern and Western Churches to tighten celibacy requirements, culminating in the First Lateran Council’s 1123 prohibition of clerical marriage.

These rules relaxed again during the Protestant Reformation, most famously when Martin Luther wed Katharina von Bora, illustrating that clerical marriage was not an absolute taboo but rather a fluctuating doctrine.

5 Lesbianism Was Considered a Medical Problem

While medieval discourse on homosexuality largely focused on men, a handful of legal texts did address female same‑sex relations. The mid‑13th‑century French treatise Li Livres de jostice et de plet prescribed punishments for lesbian acts that mirrored those for male sodomy: mutilation for the first two offenses and burning for the third.

Physicians of the era classified lesbianism as a medical ailment. Drawing on Galen, they argued that a “seed” could accumulate in a woman’s womb if she did not engage in heterosexual intercourse, recommending orgasmic release—often induced by a midwife using a heated poultice—as treatment. Another supposed condition, “ragadia of the womb,” claimed women could develop penis‑like growths, prompting desire for other women.

4 They Used Sex Toys

Sexual implements predate the Middle Ages by tens of millennia, with archaeological finds ranging from stone phalli to ivory dildos. Ancient civilizations such as Egypt and Greece fashioned toys from a variety of materials, including leather and animal hair, often lubricated with olive oil.

In medieval Europe, the most common dildo was a hardened loaf of bread—a practice also noted among the Greeks. These “bread toys” were crafted in secret to avoid ecclesiastical censure, as the Church condemned any pleasure‑focused sexual activity. The resulting devices were likely uncomfortable, but they reveal a persistent human ingenuity in seeking sexual satisfaction.

3 There Was Cross‑Dressing

Cross‑dressing was far from unheard of in medieval England, though society condemned it. An Oxford study uncovered thirteen women cited for wearing men’s clothing in the 15th century, and records suggest male cross‑dressers were equally, if not more, prevalent.

Most of those who swapped attire were prostitutes who adopted the opposite gender’s dress to fulfill personal or client desires. Authorities downplayed the phenomenon, labeling it a foreign vice, yet the documented cases prove that gender‑bending did occur, albeit clandestinely.

2 Missionary Was the Preferred Position

The medieval Church framed sex primarily as a procreative act, which cemented the missionary position—man on top, face‑to‑face—as the ideal. This posture was thought to maximize the chance of conception, while alternative positions, such as “sex a tergo” (from behind), were denounced as “beastly” and believed to blur the natural order.

Oral and anal intercourse were strictly forbidden, as they offered no reproductive benefit and were deemed purely pleasure‑driven sins. Nonetheless, some clerics began to adopt a more nuanced view.

In the 13th century, German friar Albertus Magnus ranked five positions by “naturalness”: missionary first, followed by side‑by‑side, seated, standing, and finally a tergo. While missionary remained the top choice, he deemed the others morally questionable yet not mortal sins, indicating a subtle shift in ecclesiastical attitudes.

1 There Were Punishments for Every Sexual Sin

To standardize penance, the medieval Church produced “penitentials”—manuals that listed specific punishments for each confessed sin. These texts emerged as priests recorded the confessions they heard and the corresponding penances they assigned.

Sex‑related transgressions featured prominently. The influential Paenitentiale Theodori, authored by Archbishop Theodore of Tarsus, detailed a range of penalties: men who engaged in sodomy with other men or animals faced ten years of penance, while women who practiced lesbianism received three years. Masturbation required men to abstain from meat for four days, whereas women endured a full year of repentance.

The most severe sanction was reserved for the act of ejaculating seed into the mouth, deemed the “worst evil,” demanding lifelong penance. These meticulous regulations underscore how deeply the Church sought to control even the most intimate aspects of medieval life.

When we talk about the top 10 ways extraterrestrials have shown up across history, our minds drift to the night sky, ancient scrolls, and the occasional bewildered eyewitness. Human perception constantly reshapes strange sightings through the lens of culture and experience, turning every mysterious glow into a story worth telling.

10 Classical Aliens

The Greek chronicler Plutarch recorded an other‑worldly sighting on a battlefield during the third Mithridatic war, somewhere between 75 and 63 BC. He described, “the air opened and a rapidly descending object resembling a flame appeared, shaped like a vase and glowing like annealed metal. Both armies, terrified, withdrew.” The craft, in fact, looked like a Greek urn.

Later, the Roman historian Livy, writing around 27 BC, noted that “phantom ships had been seen gleaming in the sky.” While these could have been alien vessels, they resembled ordinary ships. Some scholars suggest the phenomenon might have been a Fata Morgana—an optical illusion where light refracts through layers of air of differing densities, bending upward.

Because our eyes normally see in straight lines, objects such as a ship on the sea can appear to hover above it when atmospheric conditions bend the light, creating the illusion of a floating vessel.

9 A War Between Heaven and Hell

In April 1561, the skies over Nuremberg filled with bizarre objects, and smoke rose from the ground as if some of the shapes had crashed. The event was captured by Hans Glaser, a wood‑cutter who acted as the medieval equivalent of a photo‑journalist. He sketched a medley of forms—blood‑red crosses, lead‑black orbs, and a long spear.

Witnesses, many Nuremberg residents, interpreted the spectacle as a divine omen. Glaser wrote, “At first, two blood‑red semi‑circular arcs appeared in the middle of the sun, like a waning moon. Around the sun, round balls of dull, partially black iron color emerged. Beside them, torus‑shaped red objects formed lines of three and squares of four, some solitary. Between these globes, a few blood‑red crosses and strips were visible…”

Glaser claimed the objects fought the sun for over an hour before burning and falling to earth. The episode occurred amid the Protestant Reformation, a period when people were especially attuned to signs of divine wrath.

8 Aliens in a Zeppelin 1897

The first airship was built in France in 1852, and the inaugural Zeppelin emerged in Germany in 1893, shifting aviation from single‑pilot craft to passenger‑bearing vessels. Its cigar‑shaped silhouette became instantly recognizable, sparking worldwide fascination.

From November 1876 for two decades, sightings of cigar‑shaped craft were reported across California, Texas, and the Great Lakes. In 1897, occupants of a Nebraska courthouse—including jurors, lawyers, and even the judge—witnessed a luminous object with bright white and colored lights, oval in shape with a box‑like structure hanging beneath and a propeller at the stern—resembling a hybrid of a zeppelin and a hot‑air balloon. The Nebraska judiciary was not alone; dozens of similar reports surfaced, though not all were credible.

Also in 1897, Alexander Hamilton claimed to have seen a zeppelin‑like craft carrying six strange beings who lifted a cow into the vessel and vanished. He secured sworn affidavits from neighbors attesting to his honesty, and the tale spread like a cold. Eventually, Hamilton was exposed as a member of a “liars club,” tarnishing his credibility.

7 Fiery Foo Fighter Nazi Aliens

During World II, rumors swirled that Germany had engineered extraordinary prototype aircraft, experimenting with novel propulsion and rocket technology. These sightings, dubbed “foo fighters” (the term “foo” implying something ridiculous or strange), described machines unlike any known aircraft of the era.

Witnesses reported that these crafts could rise and hover like helicopters, propelled by a “great power,” and moved with a speed that matched their combustibility. No terrestrial machine of the time could replicate such performance.

Despite the clear advantage, the Nazi regime never fully exploited the technology. After the war, the fiery machines vanished, allegedly smuggled from secret Antarctic bases, prompting further sightings across America. Whether the Germans truly possessed advanced tech or had acquired alien technology remains a mystery.

6 The Original Flying Saucer Aliens

In 1947, two airline pilots spotted flying saucers—and a crescent‑shaped craft—over Mount Rainier in Washington. Their credibility stemmed from their professional experience in aircraft identification. One pilot, convinced it was an experimental government craft, asserted its novelty, while his co‑pilot remained less certain.

The duo observed a massive disc leading four smaller ones, traveling at high speed. As the first cluster vanished beyond the horizon, another appeared. They tracked the objects for fifteen minutes, noting the absence of vapor trails behind them.

The pilot later remarked, “Whoever controlled them wasn’t trying to hurt anyone,” suggesting a peaceful intent. These vivid descriptions have cemented the flying saucer’s place in popular culture.

5 The Bright Aliens of Salem

In July 1952, America experienced a short‑lived “alien invasion.” For two weeks, pilots and radar operators reported orange, fire‑ball objects. Fighter jets were scrambled to intercept, only for the crafts to vanish upon approach.

The phenomena were described as bright orange spheres. President Truman allegedly asked the Air Force for an explanation. Officials attributed the sightings to mirages caused by temperature variations—another instance of the Fata Morgana effect—combined with mass hysteria.

A Coast Guard photographer captured a photo of the mysterious objects from a window in Salem, Massachusetts, showing four glowing crafts. Some argue the elliptical glows result from a double‑exposure hoax; others suggest street‑light reflections on the glass.

4 The Original Alien Kidnappers

Up until November 1953, alien visitors seemed like peaceful tourists. That changed when an unidentified target appeared in the restricted airspace over the Great Lakes, prompting a fighter jet from Kinross Air Force Base to scramble.

The pilot and his radar operator struggled to track the “bogey.” Ground controllers watched two radar blips converge, then merge. Initially feared a crash, they realized the craft continued into Canadian airspace, and the fighter vanished without a trace.

Search and rescue efforts, aided by Canadian forces, yielded nothing. Theories abound: some suggest the Kinross jet was swallowed by an alien vessel that then disappeared into the night.

3 The First Sexual Contact

Elizabeth Klarer claims to be the first woman to experience extraterrestrial intimacy resulting in a child. At age seven, she met an alien named Akon, communicating telepathically. As an adult near Johannesburg, she witnessed a spacecraft land on a hill later dubbed Flying Saucer Hill. Akon, aboard, waved from a porthole, but a “barrier of heat” prevented his exit.

Months later, Akon escorted her aboard, showing the ship’s “earth observation lens.” After returning to the hilltop, they kissed, and Akon revealed she was a reincarnated Venusian and his long‑lost soulmate.

Their encounters continued, and at 49, Elizabeth became pregnant. She reportedly gave birth on the alien’s planet, leaving the child there to be raised by its alien father. The trip spanned about four Earth months—nine alien years. Klarer returned with a message of “cosmic consciousness,” urging love, peace, and understanding.

2 The Hitchhiking Aliens

Credibility matters in UFO investigations, and when an Anglican missionary reports a sighting, it draws attention. In 1959, Reverend William Booth Gill, serving in Papua New Guinea, noticed a sparkling object in the sky. Over four hours, he and roughly thirty witnesses documented the phenomenon.

After about forty‑five minutes, the light vanished briefly, then returned with three smaller objects. The “mothership” emitted a blue glow and descended low enough for Gill to see four alien figures atop the craft. They departed when rain began. The following night, the ships returned; the four figures waved, and Gill waved back before sharing a dinner with them.

The Australian government, persuaded by Gill’s reputable testimony, launched an investigation, concluding the event likely had a natural cause—variations in cloud density producing human‑like shapes. Gill, however, believed the aliens were stranded, waving to hitch a ride. He spent the rest of his life chronicling the experience.

1 The First Robotic Alien

Aliens evolve. Early encounters featured humanoid beings, but by 1973, reports described robotic‑type extraterrestrials. Police Chief Jeff Greenhaw received a call from a woman reporting alien landings in his town, prompting him to arm himself and bring a camera.

Upon arrival, Greenhaw found nothing unusual, but while patrolling a dirt road, his headlights illuminated a figure moving oddly. Approaching, he realized the creature wore a metallic suit that emitted bright light. When he asked if the being was okay, it remained silent. He began photographing it, but the camera flash frightened the entity, which fled at inhuman speed.

Experts examined the photos, confirming they were untampered. Negatives revealed UFO‑like objects invisible on prints. Some locals accused Greenhaw of pranking the town. The mysterious female caller vanished, leading to his dismissal, his wife leaving, and his home mysteriously burning down. Undeterred, Greenhaw continued to watch his neighborhood, aware that the truth may one day demand preparedness for extinction‑level events.

The phrase ‘dark ages’ was first coined by 14th‑century Italian scholar Petrarch. It has since been used informally to describe the interval between Rome’s fall and the dawn of the Renaissance across Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. While modern historians shy away from the label, many still picture this era as a time of cultural dimness, when the knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome seemed to fade amid war and upheaval—until the bright spark of the Renaissance emerged.

In truth, the so‑called Dark Ages were anything but stagnant. Across continents, innovators forged tools and ideas that would ripple through history. Below are ten groundbreaking inventions that originated—or were refined—during this period, each a key piece of the puzzle that led to the modern world.

10 Astrolabe

The medieval mariner’s astrolabe traces its conceptual roots back to ancient Greece, but it wasn’t until the sixth century AD that it could be produced in quantity for everyday use. In its simplest form, an astrolabe is a device that measures the positions of celestial bodies—originally crafted for navigation and later adapted for a range of astronomical purposes. By the Middle Ages, it was a common sight across the Arab world, the Byzantine Empire, India, and Europe, and it found a thriving hub in Islamic Spain during the 10th century.

The astrolabe proved revolutionary during the Age of Exploration. Sailors at sea began using a specialized version—the mariner’s astrolabe—to calculate latitude by sighting the Pole Star or the Sun. Portuguese navigators relied on it for voyages along the West African coast, and it later guided the famed expeditions of Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus to India and the Americas.

9 Eyeglasses

Salvino degli Armati is often credited with inventing the first pair of eyeglasses between 1285 and 1299. While earlier cultures—especially in the Arab world—had experimented with magnifying lenses, Armati’s design, coupled with Italy’s burgeoning glassblowing industry, enabled mass production for the first time. These early spectacles consisted of two simple convex lenses linked by a central joint, set into frames fashioned from bone, wood, wire, or leather. Unlike earlier reading stones, these glasses could sit comfortably on the wearer’s nose.

Beyond improving reading, eyeglasses paved the way for later optical marvels. The Janssen father‑son duo in the late 16th century built on this foundation to create the earliest microscopes, while Galileo Galilei refined the combination of concave and convex lenses to produce a compound microscope in 1625.

8 Woodblock Printing

Woodblock printing emerged during China’s Tang and Song dynasties, marking the first large‑scale method for disseminating knowledge. Originating around 600 AD from earlier stone‑seal techniques, the process involved carving characters onto wooden blocks, inking them, and pressing the inked surface onto paper. By the end of the Tang era, the method had been refined to a high degree of craftsmanship.

Across China, woodblock printing was employed to produce books on agriculture, medicine, calendars, and calligraphy. A notable milestone arrived in 762 AD when the first commercially printed books were sold in the capital Chang’an. Although labor‑intensive, woodblock printing laid the groundwork for later innovations such as movable‑type printing, which would eventually accelerate mass production.

7 Mechanical Clocks

Invented in the 13th century, mechanical clocks represented a leap forward from the ancient water clocks that had kept time for millennia. Their defining feature was the escapement mechanism, which allowed gears to move in a series of equal, regulated jumps, producing a steady rhythm.

Initially, the importance of this innovation was not fully appreciated; it seemed a modest improvement over water clocks. Yet, it inaugurated a new age of precise timekeeping, crucial for navigation and later scientific endeavors. By the late 1200s, mechanical clocks had spread from northern Italy to southern Germany, eventually supplanting water clocks as the preferred chronometers of the era. Their influence persisted through the Renaissance and into the Industrial Revolution.

6 Tidal Mills

Tidal mills date back to the seventh century and were primarily used to grind grain using the power of the tides. They became widespread across what is now England and Ireland, strategically placed in low‑lying coastal zones or river estuaries to harness tidal movements much like traditional watermills, but driven by the sea’s rise and fall.

At their core, tidal mills featured a dam with a gated passageway that allowed water to flow in during high tide, storing it for later use. When the tide receded, the stored water turned a wheel, powering the millstones. The earliest known tidal mill, constructed around 619 AD, was discovered at Nendrum Monastery in Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland. By the 18th century, tide mills were clustered around London, demonstrating their lasting utility.

5 Musical Notations

While rudimentary musical symbols existed as early as the 10th century, Guido of Arezzo is widely recognized for devising the modern staff notation system. Working in the Middle Ages, Guido created a four‑line staff and assigned letters to pitches, providing a reliable method to record sacred melodies that had previously been passed down orally.

Guido’s system dramatically transformed music education, slashing the time needed to train singers and instrumentalists. He also introduced solmization—a technique that paired specific syllables with intervals—giving rise to the ‘do‑re‑mi’ system still taught today in many music curricula.

4 Medieval Castles

Pinpointing the exact origin of castles is tricky, as fortified structures have existed for millennia. However, the classic European medieval castle—recognizable by its stone walls, towers, and keeps—began to take shape in the ninth century, especially across France. Early fortifications often consisted of a high mound surrounded by a ditch.

These timber‑based defenses soon proved vulnerable to fire‑based weapons and natural decay. Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, King William commissioned the first stone castles. Over the ensuing centuries, monarchs and builders across Europe experimented with new designs, creating more secure stone fortresses that would dominate the medieval landscape.

3 Algebra

Algebra, the mathematical branch dealing with symbols, variables, and equations, traces its roots to the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al‑Khwarizmi in the ninth century. The term ‘algebra’ derives from his seminal work Hisab al‑jabr w’al‑muqabala, which outlined systematic solutions for linear and quadratic equations.

Al‑Khwarizmi’s treatise, later translated into English as The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, spread throughout Europe during the Renaissance. His methods found practical applications in inheritance calculations and trade, and he conducted his research at Baghdad’s famed House of Wisdom—one of the largest knowledge centers of its time.

2 Paper Money

Paper money transformed the concept of currency and set the stage for modern finance. Its origins lie in China’s Song dynasty during the 11th century, though the notion of promissory notes dates back to the Tang era, when merchants on the Silk Road used trusted agents to issue paper‑based credit.

In the Song period, the state created licensed deposit shops where citizens could deposit coins and receive government‑issued notes. By the 12th century, these notes—known as jiaozi—were printed using woodblocks with six ink colors and varied paper fibers to deter counterfeiting. Though the Mongol invasion of 1279 curtailed their use, the system laid the groundwork for the extensive paper‑money network later employed by the Yuan dynasty.

1 Gunpowder

Gunpowder stands among the most influential inventions in human history. Developed by alchemists during China’s Tang era in pursuit of an elixir of life, legend holds that an anonymous researcher stumbled upon the perfect blend—approximately 75 % saltpeter, 15 % charcoal, and 10 % sulfur—around 850 AD.

The Song dynasty quickly adapted gunpowder for military purposes, creating weapons such as ‘flying fire’ arrows, hand‑grenades, landmines, and even early flamethrowers. The technology spread via Mongol conquests, reaching the Middle East and Europe by the 13th century. By the 14th century, Europeans refined the mixture into ‘corned powder,’ a more stable and powerful explosive that would forever alter warfare.

Editor’s Note: Over the years, we’ve published countless lists highlighting the bright side of the so‑called “dark ages.” Those pieces offered a contrarian spin, celebrating cultural sparks amid the gloom. Now, refusing to shy away from controversy, a fresh voice brings the opposite viewpoint—an unflinching look at why this era was genuinely, well, dark.

Welcome to our top 10 reasons that the Dark Ages were darker than you think. Buckle up as we journey through blood‑soaked battles, crumbling economies, and the eerie silence of lost knowledge.

10 Violence and Bloodshed

The collapse of the Western Roman Empire was driven by marauding Germanic tribes who seized power with ruthless force in the fifth century. Their raids weren’t motivated by spite toward Rome; rather, they coveted the empire’s abundant wealth. These invasions shredded the imperial tax base, crippling Rome’s ability to fund professional legions.

While historian Peter Brown paints these interactions as relatively peaceful accommodations, the lived reality was far from serene. When the Goths besieged Rome in 410, desperate citizens resorted to cannibalism to stave off starvation. Barbarian conquests unleashed waves of violence across the empire, with Gaul enduring nearly a century of turmoil before Burgundian and Frankish kingdoms finally settled the scene in the sixth century.

Why These Top 10 Reasons Matter

Understanding the sheer brutality of this period helps us grasp why subsequent societal shifts were so profound.

9 Most of the Empire Was Affected

The Dark Ages didn’t stay confined to a single corner; its shadow stretched over most of the Roman world. Yet, the timing and intensity of decline varied. North Africa, central Italy, and Britain felt the squeeze centuries before the Aegean regions.

Britain’s case was especially stark: the Romano‑Celtic civilization that once thrived essentially vanished, thrusting its people back to a prehistoric level of existence. By the seventh century, every former imperial territory—save for Constantinople and the Levant under flourishing Arab rule—had succumbed to catastrophic decline.

8 The Decline of Economic Complexity

Economic intricacy evaporated, signaling the end of widespread prosperity. Roman manufacturing and the distribution of high‑quality goods had once underpinned the empire’s wealth. By the fifth century, internal power struggles and barbarian invasions demolished regional economies, erasing that complexity.

This regression wasn’t uniform. By 400 AD, the West already showed signs of retreat, while the eastern Mediterranean held on until around 600 AD, except for the Levant. Britain suffered the most drastic drop, sinking below pre‑Roman Iron Age standards. Europe wouldn’t reclaim comparable material sophistication until the thirteenth‑to‑fifteenth‑century Late Middle Ages.

7 The Decline of Pottery

The most telling evidence of Roman decay lies in pottery studies. Three hallmarks—exceptional quality and standardization, massive production volumes, and wide geographic spread—vanished for centuries. High‑grade Roman pottery once graced both elite and modest households.

In the post‑Roman era, these traits disappeared. Sophisticated pottery production and trade collapsed, especially in Britain and parts of Spain. The overall quality declined to basic, utilitarian forms; output plummeted, and the once‑far‑reaching distribution from North African kilns contracted sharply.

6 The Decline of Monumental Building

Housing evidence further underscores Roman decline. In Roman times, even modest dwellings featured mortared stone, brick, and tiled roofs. Urban and rural homes boasted marble floors, mosaics, underfloor heating, and piped water. After Rome’s fall, stone and brick construction dwindled dramatically, replaced by timber walls, dirt floors, and thatch.

Historian Bryan Ward‑Perkins notes that fifth‑ and sixth‑century British buildings were predominantly perishable. The Jarrow and Monkwearmouth monasteries, erected late in the seventh century, marked the first stone structures in England since Roman days. Abbot Benedict Biscop had to import Gaulish masons because local expertise in masonry and glazing was nonexistent. The Venerable Bede recorded Benedict’s quest for foreign artisans to craft a Roman‑style church, complete with glazed windows and imported liturgical items.

Ward‑Perkins also observes that in post‑Roman Italy, only kings and bishops retained Roman‑level domestic comforts.

5 The Decline of Metalworking

Ice cores from Greenland reveal that Roman times hosted extensive lead, copper, and silver smelting—evidence of large‑scale metalworking. This industrial vigor evaporated in the post‑Roman world, reverting to prehistoric levels. It wouldn’t rebound to Roman magnitude until the sixteenth‑seventeenth centuries, aligning with the early Industrial Revolution.

4 The Decline of Coinage as a Medium of Exchange

During the Roman era, gold, silver, and copper coins flooded daily life, accessible to both rich and poor. By the post‑Roman period, coinage nearly vanished in Britain; archaeological sites lacking Roman layers rarely yield coins.

In the western Mediterranean, the drop was less severe. From the fifth to seventh centuries, copper coins were scarce, yet Rome itself continued circulating substantial copper coinage. In the eastern Mediterranean, apart from Constantinople and the Levant, coin usage dwindled dramatically by the seventh century.

3 The Decline of Literacy

Although we can’t pin down exact literacy rates in ancient Rome, evidence shows reading and writing were widespread. Inscriptions—dedications, funerary epitaphs, and casual graffiti—filled urban spaces and even rural locales. One notorious graffiti from a Pompeian brothel reads, “Here Phoebus the perfume‑seller had a really good f———.”

Literacy was essential for the imperial bureaucracy, military, and aristocracy, who were expected to master Greek and Latin literature. Illiteracy among the elite was rare.

The post‑Roman world saw this shift dramatically. In Anglo‑Saxon Britain, literacy disappeared entirely. Western Mediterranean regions lost the myriad stamps, seals, and inscriptions that once marked commercial and military activity. Casual graffiti faded. The simplified world no longer required widespread reading and writing.

Even barbarian rulers often lacked literacy; Charlemagne himself struggled with the Latin alphabet. The clergy remained the primary literate class.

2 The Almost Total Loss of Ancient Learning

By 500 AD, most Latin authors were still readily available in Rome and other western locales, despite wars and occasional Christian opposition. However, the transmission of pagan Latin manuscripts nearly ceased in the post‑Roman era. Reynolds and Marshall (1983) note that copying of classical texts dwindled to the point where pagan cultural continuity was almost severed.

In the Greek East, economic pressures and Christian hostility led to massive loss of pagan literature. Rudolf Blum estimates that merely one percent of all classical Greek works have survived.

Overall, scholars reckon only 1‑10 % of ancient literature endured the Dark Ages.

1 The Vanishing Population of Post‑Roman Europe

Field surveys north of Rome reveal a sharp decline in rural settlements during the post‑Roman period. While perishable building materials complicate definitive conclusions, the trend suggests significant depopulation.

Additional evidence points to shrinking agricultural output—cattle grew larger from the Iron Age to the Roman period, then shrank back to prehistoric sizes in early medieval times—indicating a contraction in food supply. Collectively, these signs imply a notable drop in population across post‑Roman Europe.

The Middle Ages spanned from roughly AD 500 to AD 1500. It was a period filled with famine, plague, and war. Ruled by the king, the people of medieval England lived under a feudal system heavily influenced by the Roman Catholic Church.

During the Middle Ages, both laws and the penalties for breaking them were very different from the ones we are familiar with today. From football being outlawed to the practice of witchcraft being punishable by death, here are ten ludicrous laws from the Middle Ages that, thankfully, are no longer in place.

Related: Top 10 Ridiculous Laws That Are Still Enforced Across The World

10 Playing Football Was Forbidden

While football players today have a reputation of being dramatic over the smallest of injuries, their predecessors were the exact opposite. Medieval football was a violent game. While there were not as many rules, there was a lot more bloodshed. Rather than a ball, an inflated pig’s bladder was kicked up and down the entire length of a village, with the goals sometimes miles apart. Players could kick and punch both the bladder and their opponents, resulting in many injuries and the occasional death.

Football was banned in 1349 by Edward III, not because he was concerned about public health but rather about national security. Not only was England at war with France in 1349, but the country was also suffering the loss of many lives due to the Black Death, a global epidemic of the bubonic plague. Edward III wanted his remaining, healthy men to be focused on their archery practice rather than getting distracted by football. The punishment for playing football was six days imprisonment.^[1]

9 Blowing One’s Nose Was Illegal

Newmarket, a town in the English county of Suffolk, is known as the birthplace of horse racing. The practice dates back to the 12th century, but James I popularized it after building a palace there in 1606, which drew in a lot of people.

Over time horse racing in Newmarket grew into a large business, and the town was forced to establish laws to protect the horses, including one that made it illegal for people to blow their noses in the street. This was to reduce the risk of the horses getting sick. What a nightmare it must have been for people with hay fever!

Blowing one’s nose wasn’t the only thing that could get a person in trouble. Anyone walking around with a head cold or temperature had to pay a fine. Obviously, Horse racing was a serious business.^[2]

8 You Had to Have Your Master’s Permission to Get Married

Today, it’s daunting enough having to ask the father of your partner for their child’s hand in marriage. While this practice is done out of respect, the answer given does not decide your future, and you can still get married—even if the father does not give his blessing. This, however, was not the case in the Middle Ages.

Societal rank played a large role in medieval life, especially for those at the bottom of the pyramid. Peasants and serfs working and living under landowners essentially had no freedom. A man wanting to get married not only had to get the father”s permission but also their landowner’s.

For a woman, the situation was even worse. If her husband died, the landowner could force them to marry another man in a relatively short amount of time. If they refused, they could receive punishment. ^[3]

7 Wearing Long, Pointy Footwear Was Forbidden

Fifteenth-century Britain was a time of flamboyance. Along with short shirts, long, pointy-ended shoes known as crackows, or pikes, had become the height of men’s fashion. It was believed that the longer the toe, the more masculine and rich the wearer, so much so that shoes sometimes extended up to five inches beyond the toe. This led to the ends occasionally having to be tied around the wearer’s ankles.

As the fashion continued growing and peasants began wearing more extravagant clothing, the English crown finally decided to step in. They wished to preserve the feudal hierarchy and stop people from dressing above their social rank. Between 1463 and 1604, a law passed that said that “No knight under the rank of a lord, esquire, or gentleman, nor any other person, shall wear any shoes or boots having spikes or points which exceed the length of two inches.” The punishment was a fine of three shillings and four pence, which is just over US$136.^[4]

6 People Could No Longer Eat More Than Two Courses

In the Middle Ages, there were many sumptuary laws that restricted what people could eat and drink. They were intended to reduce excessive eating and prevent people of lower social status from matching the lifestyles of those above them.

In 1336, a law banned that people, no matter their rank, shall be served a meal with no more than two courses. Soup, it made sure to specify, counted as a full course meal and wasn’t just a sauce. The exception to the law was on certain festivals, such as Christmas, where three courses were allowed.^[5]

5 Commit a Crime, Go through an Ordeal

In medieval England, the peasants had strength in their numbers. To stay in power and prevent revolts, the upper-class authorities made it so that even the smallest of crimes committed had harsh penalties. The idea of this was to make the poor fear stepping out of line. Even petty crimes (theft, disturbing the peace—which often meant the king—or vagrancy) sometimes resulted in harsh punishments, from flogging to having some part of the body cut off (hands were quite common). Until 1215, even being accused of a crime resulted in the punishment of enduring an ordeal that revealed a person’s innocence or guilt.

There were three ordeals:

Ordeal by fire: The accused held a red-hot iron bar in their hands and walked three meters. After three days of being bandaged up, the wound on the hand would be looked at to determine the accused’s fate. If it was healing, they were innocent; if it wasn’t, they were guilty.

Ordeal by water: The accused was tied up and thrown into a body of water. If they sank, they were innocent. If they floated, it was seen that the river had not accepted them, and, therefore, they were guilty.

Ordeal by combat: This was combat between the accused and accuser. It was believed that God would give strength to the innocent. It must be noted that the fight often ended in the loser’s death.

The practice of ordeals was declared over by the Pope in 1215 and was replaced by a jury process.^[6]

4 No Sex on Certain Days of the Week

Throughout the Middle Ages, there were a number of religious laws that tried to restrict when a person could have sex. In an average seven-day week, a married couple could only have sex on four of the days. Days in which sex was prohibited included Thursday and Friday because people were supposed to prepare for Holy Communion and Sunday—because it was the Lord’s day.

And that wasn’t all. Throughout the year, there were many other periods where sex was banned, including 47 to 62 days during Lent, the 35 days before Christmas, and the time around the Feast of Pentecost, which could be anywhere from 40 to 60 days.

Medieval people believed that eye contact was an important part of sexual attraction. It was said that “the eye was not a passive receiver but was instead active in sending out rays of sight toward the object of vision. The very act of looking could stimulate desire in the observer and the observed.” Women were advised to be careful about when they looked at men—so as to not tempt them at the wrong time.^[7]

8 Playing Tennis Was Forbidden

Football wasn’t the only sport banned in the Middle Ages. In 1485, it became illegal for young men who weren’t nobles to play tennis, with the only exception being on Christmas day. Medieval tennis was believed to disrupt labor and encourage gambling in workers because participants were left in unsupervised situations without their masters around.

The banning of tennis in the lower classes helped to maintain the feudal hierarchy. Tennis began to be seen as an exclusively upper-class sport because it needed expensive equipment and required an understanding of complex rules and social etiquette.

Tennis eventually became known as “the sport of kings,” with Henry VII and Henry VIII both apparently very into the game. A Venetian Ambassador who watched Henry VIII play in his youth said, “It was the prettiest thing in the world to see him play; his fair skin glowing through a shirt of the finest texture.” Thankfully today, tennis can be played by all.^[8]

2 Blasphemy Resulted in the Loss of One’s Tongue

In the Middle Ages, people had to watch their tongues, both physically and metaphorically, to avoid breaking the religious law regarding blasphemy, the action of speaking ill about God or sacred things. The law was put in place by the medieval Catholic Church to maintain control and order.

The church viewed blasphemy as a severe crime and gave it an equally severe punishment. The penalty for blasphemers was harsh. Often a person would be bound and tied while their tongue was removed with hot pliers, leaving them mute for the rest of their lives. Other punishments included stoning and hangings.^[9]

1 Practicing Witchcraft Was Punishable by Death

In the Middle Ages, people did not understand how many things worked around them, especially natural phenomena, as much was unknown to the scientific world. Humans, in general, do not like uncertainty, and the people of the Middle Ages were no different. Usually, God was their answer for things that could not be explained. However, when it came to naturally occurring ill-fortunes such as sickness, bad harvests, and the deaths of animals, they blamed witches because God, in their eyes, could not do evil.

Witches were believed to be able to summon evil spirits and demons, but in reality, they were usually just poor, elderly women who owned a cat. While widespread witch trials throughout Europe didn’t reach their peak until the late fifteenth century, certain women were ostracized and punished when seen as different.

In 1542, the Witchcraft Act was passed by parliament and established that witchcraft was a crime punishable by death. Witch-hunting became huge after that, especially in southeast England, and it is believed that over 500 people were put to death between the 15th and 18th centuries.^[10]

In 2022, cannibalism became a popular subject again for mass media purposes. First, there was the 2022 three-part series House of Hammer about disgraced actor Armie Hammer who was accused of sexual abuse and cannibalistic fantasies. Then there were shows like Monster: The Jeffrey Dahmer Story and Yellowjackets as well as the movies Fresh and Bones and All.

Cannibalism is nothing new, though. Shakespeare even tackled the subject in Titus Andronicus. By and large, cannibalism involves one adult eating another. However, there’s a long, dark, and forgotten corner of history about cannibals eating children. This article examines some of the most terrifying cases from the medieval ages about filial cannibalism or the cannibalism of children.

10 The People of Lamuri

Odoric of Pordenone is a Franciscan friar who lived from 1286 to 1331 and documented his travels during the 14th century. Odoric’s reports were subsequently popularized and even later plagiarized by Sir John Mandeville, who is likely to have never left his abbey or dispensary.

The Travels of Sir John Mandeville are how great minds like Columbus, da Vinci, and Shakespeare first learned about the wonders of the ancient East.

One of the many places that Odoric visited was Lamuri, a kingdom in northern Indonesia that lasted until the beginning of the 16th century. The area is believed to be one of the earliest places where Islam arrived in the Indonesian archipelago.

During Odoric’s travels, he passed through Lamuri, which is derived from the medieval Arabic word for the area of Sumatra, where the population traded. The populace of Lamuri walked around without clothing and made fun of Odoric for his clothes. The people of Lamuri also did not believe in marriage, sharing all women among each other. Odoric, however, noted that the people of Lamuri had one “wicked habit”: children were bought if adequately “plump” or reared until they were bigger. The people of Lamuri commented to Odoric that child flesh was the “sweetest meat in the world.”^[1]

9 The Siege of Ma’arra

The Siege of Ma’arra occurred in late 1098 in what is now Syria during the First Crusade. After capturing Antioch, Crusaders moved to the south and began raiding and pillaging each town they found, which is where they encountered the city of Ma’arra on December 11, 1098. It was a peaceful city whose economy was based on the growth of olives, figs, and grapes. Ma’arra was subsequently devastated by the Crusaders, who killed thousands of people.

But Ma’arra was also the site of cannibalism. Radulph of Caen, who chronicled the genocide, observed that adults classified as pagans were boiled in pots while children were impaled on spits, then grilled and eaten. Fulcher of Chartres, another observer at the time, wrote that the Crusaders, driven by hunger, removed the buttocks from corpses found in the city, which they then cooked and ate mostly rare.^[2]

8 The Waldenses

The Waldenses began as a Christianity movement in France during the late 1170s. The group was named after its founder, Peter Waldo, who was a wealthy Lyon merchant. Waldo had heard a troubadour sing about St. Alexius, the patron saint of beggars and pilgrims. This song, combined with the loss that Waldo experienced at the sudden death of his friend, led him to believe that all his belongings were worthless. This led him to give away his property to the poor and begin street preaching.

The Waldenses were persecuted heavily throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. In 1655, the Duke of Savoy ordered the Waldenses to attend Mass or be removed from their homes. The Waldenses had twenty days to sell their land. The Waldenses chose to leave their homes and move to the upper valley, which required them to make a trek through the Alps in the middle of winter. The Duke sent his troops after the Waldenses and required the Waldenses to allow the troops into their homes, which gave the troops easy access to the group.

On April 24, 1655, a signal for a massacre was given, known as the Piedmont Easter. Writer Peter Liegé observed that children were separated from their mothers, clasped by their feet, and smashed against rocks or held between two soldiers and torn apart. During the Piedmont Easter, troops also cooked the arms and legs of people, including children. Other people were roasted alive.^[3]

7 The Ming Dynasty

The Ming Dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644, during which time China’s population increased substantially. The Ming Dynasty is remembered for expanding trade, creating long-lasting drama and literature, and making porcelain.

The Ming Dynasty popularized a practice that had become popular during the earlier Tang Dynasty. In the 700s, a physician, Ch’en Tsang-ch’I, became the first Chinese doctor on record to prescribe human flesh for various ailments. Three requirements were necessary before the good doctor prescribed human flesh. First, the act must be voluntary—the donor had to donate parts of themselves for this intended purpose. Second, the donor and the recipient needed to bear a close relationship, which often meant that the donor was a child or child-in-law. And finally, the recipient could not know they were consuming human flesh, so the flesh was disguised in ordinary food.^[4]

6 The Great Famine of 1315

In the 14th century, cold weather and famine in England led to the Great Famine of 1315 to 1322. Before the cold came, Europe pushed itself to the limits of its resources. Four centuries of mild temperature led the country’s farmers to grow crops on vast quantities of land that were previously not suitable for agriculture. This led to an increased food supply which led to a population explosion and tripled the number of people in Europe. When these lands stopped being able to produce food due to frosts and floods, millions of extra mouths needed to be fed. This led to civil wars and rebellions. Two harvest failures in 1314 and 1315 turned into years of famine.

While all of Europe was hit, Europe’s towns were where the Great Famine hit the worst. Corpses piled up in streets, bodies were flung into open pits, and countless stories abound of cannibalism and child abandonment. The cannibalism of children was so common during this time that the folk tale “Hansel and Gretel” was created.^[5]

5 The Tupinambá

The Tupinambá are a group of South American Indians who speak the Tupian language and live on the eastern coast of Brazil. In the past, the group lived in villages that ranged in size from 400 to 1,600 people who supported themselves by farming and fishing in the ocean. War among the Tupinambá was a common occurrence. The group was focused on war and is alleged to have practiced cannibalism.

Manuel de Nóbrega was a Jesuit priest who lived from 1517 to 1570 and founded the Jesuit mission in Brazil. Nóbrega wrote in his book Reports on the Lands of Brazil that the Tupinambá only waged war out of hatred for the enemy. Nóbrega wrote that the Tupinambá fought one another and that when enemies were captured, they were kept as prisoners. At the same time, their daughters were taken as wives, and the prisoners were then killed with great celebration. They smoked corpses in the fire and then ate them. If the enemies left children, these were eaten too.^[6]

4 The Caribs

The Caribs are indigenous people on the northern coast of South America. Today, the Caribs live in villages along the shores of Venezuela, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana and speak a language called Carib. Christopher Columbus was the first to report on cannibalism among the Caribs. Amerigo Vespucci wrote that the Caribs ate little meat except that which came from humans and that the Caribs ate all of their enemies, whether man or woman.

Observing the Caribs, Padre Augustin de Frias wrote that the Caribs from the Guarapiche/Guanipa area chose to eat young children instead of prisoners. The Caribs in this area also practiced a form of euthanasia in which the elderly were eaten so they would not have to face a lingering death. Some historians argue that these practices were merely the result of propaganda against Indigenous people, though, who resisted the Spanish.^[7]

3 The Aztecs

The Aztecs began sacrificing humans in the early fourteenth century. At first, sacrifices were uncommon but grew in number as time passed and the empire expanded. The Aztec sacrifice of humans was inspired by the idea that the human body contained energy that kept the sun in motion through the sky and subsequently renewed time, crops, and human lives.

During Aztec sacrifices, human hearts were offered to the sun, and blood was smeared on the walls to make sure Aztec temples were coated with energy. In addition to men and women, children were sacrificed too in the first quarter of the Aztec year. Children were purchased from their parents specifically to be sacrificed. Hernando Cortes’s man allegedly came across roasted babies, which the Aztecs carried as provisions but abandoned when they noticed the Spaniards.^[8]

2 The Korowai

The Korowai tribe of Papa New Guinea practices a type of revenge cannibalism that impacts children. The Korowai were in full swing during the Middle Ages and, for centuries, have believed in sorcery, witchcraft, and revenge on a widespread social level. Abnormal behavior among the Korowai can lead a person to be accused of participating in sorcery. Additionally, because the culture has had no breakthroughs regarding medicine and health, they have their own methods for explaining sicknesses.

Before someone passes away in the Korowai tribe, they might claim that they know who the sorcerer is. This might lead to a child being named. After the person’s death, the alleged sorcerer is then found, made to stand in a clearing, shot with arrows, cooked, and eaten. The alleged sorcerer’s body is then dismembered and placed on branches to warn others.^[9]

1 The Siege of Suiyang

China’s An Lushan Rebellion started in 755. The following year, the rebel Yan army had control of most of northern China. In 757, emperor An Qinxu ordered general Yin Ziqi to take control of Suiyang (which is the current day site of Shangqiu, Henan) because the city was situated between two major ones. Yin Ziqi’s 130,000-man army then took control of Suiyang while fighting against Zhang Xun and the Xu Yuan army of around 6,800 men.

Through clever tactics, Zhang Xun was able to kill around 5,000 Yan troops at first. Zhang Xun then killed general Yin Ziqi, which greatly disorganized the Yan army. In 16 days, the Yan army had lost around 20,000 men, which led Yin Ziqi to order a retreat. Yin Ziqi returned to take Suiyang later with 20,000 new men. The Xu Yuan and Zhang Xun had prepared for the battle by storing food inside the city of Suiyang. This was lessened when it was shared with neighboring kingdoms. Soldiers received very small rations. Zhang Xun was soon left fighting 1,600 soldiers who were starving and sick. The soldiers grew further desperate without outside help. Before long, Zhang Xun’s men were eating tree bark, tea leaves, and paper.

The dwellers of Suiyang during this time traded their children to eat and cook corpses. Zhang Xun even killed his concubine in front of his soldier and proceeded to cook and consume her flesh. When the woman was eaten, the troops ate the old and young. Before long, there were no more people to eat. Eventually, Suiyang fell to the rebels, and Zhang Xun was captured.^[10]