As summed up by Homer Simpson, the most important philosopher of the 20th century: Beer is the cause of and solution to all of life’s problems. The amber liquid deserves a fair share of the credit for a lot of major changes and advances throughout humanity’s history.

10Refrigeration

Fridges keep our food fresh and safe for our consumption. They are absolutely critical to our survival and the way we have flourished in the modern world. We also use them to keep our beers nice and cold, which is actually what they were created for.

Brewing traditionally only took place during the cooler months, as it is an exothermic process. It generates heat, and too much heat can kill the yeast and ruin the beer. For hundreds of years, blocks of ice were harvested and stored in cellars to keep the beer cool. Then came the breakthrough of mechanical refrigeration by Carl Von Linde, who was employed by the Spaten Brewery in Munich.

By the 1880s, refrigeration was common in breweries. It was expensive, but it let them brew all year round. It further let breweries grow and pop up in locations far from ice sources. This also led to the dominance of cooler lager beers . . . as well as, eventually, the presence of refrigerators in everyone’s home.

9Glass Bottles

While not creating glass, beer was the driver behind the glass bottles that contain everything from amber ales to water, ketchup, baby milk, and medicine. This it was one of the earliest examples of large-scale mechanical production, which would flourish so incredibly in the 20th century.

Michael Joseph Owens was the man behind the machine. Owens linked up with Libbey Glass to market his product with the aim of using it to mass-produce long-neck beer bottles. Owens’s machine was a raging success. By 1903, he had created a commercial machine that could churn out 12 glass bottles per minute. By 1912, it could make 50 every minute. The machine created by Owens was used around the globe by 1915.

The company formed by Owens owned the rights to making brandy, wine, and specialty bottles. Exclusive rights were sold to Heinz for ketchup, Hazel-Atlas for general bottles, and Ball Brothers for fruit jars.

8Pasteurization And Germ Theory

The process of pasteurization is now commonly associated with milk. It involves heating and subsequently cooling substances to remove harmful bacteria. However, the man who discovered the benefits of this process, Louis Pasteur, wasn’t worried about milk—he was trying to fix beer.

Local breweries wanted to know what was causing their beer to spoil, and helping local industries was part of Pasteur’s job at the University of Lille. They hired Pasteur, who demonstrated that bacteria caused this—bacteria that could be removed by heating and cooling the beer. He called the process pasteurization.

This process, all from beer experiments, led to the development and proof of germ theory, which stated that outside pathogens cause disease. Previously, it had been thought that pathogens spontaneously generated inside a substance rather than coming from without. This in turn led to vaccinations and modern medicines, all thanks to people getting tired of sour beer.

7The Thermometer

James Joule needed the extremely specific conditions and skills he learned in his brewery to measure and define mechanical heat. For example, the ambient temperature had to be ultra-precise, he had to work alone, and he had to work for many hours uninterrupted. Under these unique constraints, forced by brewing, he performed his experiments that would affect the entire field of physics.

Joule recognized that he needed a more precise thermometer, giving us the mercury model that is so key today, rather than the inaccurate air thermometers that were previously commonplace. Perhaps even more importantly, Joule devised the mechanical heat ratio in his brewery, which eventually became the basis of the science of energy.

6The pH Scale

The pH scale is an integral part of modern science across several fields. It defines the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A pH of 7 is neutral, and anything lower is an acid, while anything higher is alkaline, 14 being the most alkaline. The scale describes optimal levels for liquids, such as within the body and in drinking water. And it all came about thanks to a bunch of beer lovers annoyed that they couldn’t consistently measure their beer.

Frustrated brewers at Carlsberg hated having no standard measure of describing their product’s acidity. They had to use subjective terms that were not precise. Creating the scale enabled them to monitor the fermentation of their beer as well as allow anybody to repeat their manufacturing process and get the same result.

5The T-Test

When conducting studies, you ideally want a large sample size to verify your hypothesis. But in life, things rarely go ideally. What do you do when such a size isn’t available?

That problem was faced by Guinness breweries, since they couldn’t easily repeat tests on new barley varieties. Sample sizes were small, and it would take another year for a new crop, which would be subject to different weather conditions. It was like trying to gauge a population of 1,000 using a group of 10.

Brewer William Seally Gosset devised the t-test as a solution to this problem, publishing it in an international journal under the name “Student,” as he was not allowed to use his real name. In more technical terms, the t-test is about testing hypotheses drawn from a small sample when the standard deviation is unknown. Statisticians have Guinness to thank for it.

4Carbon Dioxide

Air was once thought to be one homogenous substance, not the combination of gases we know it is today. It was all thanks to beer that Joseph Priestley discovered carbon dioxide. And with it, he discovered the existence of individual gases.

Living next door to a brewery, Priestley observed that gas floating off the fermenting mixtures fell to the ground, indicating that it was heavier than the air around it. He had discovered carbon dioxide. In addition, he observed that it extinguished lit wood. Priestley figured out how to produce it without alcohol, inventing carbonated beverages as well, so beer also led to the creation of all your favorite fizzy drinks.

This monumental discovery inspired Priestley to figure out what other kinds of “airs” (later called gases) floated around. In the end, the heavy air coming off his beer let Priestley discover not only CO₂ and oxygen but six other gases, including laughing gas—a feat unequalled.

3The Age Of Exploration

The European voyages to discover and colonize land during the Age of Exploration were very long, with little to no chance of stopping in at a port to resupply. So the rations aboard had to last long enough that the crew would not die of starvation on the journey.

When Christopher Columbus left the shores of the Iberian Peninsula seeking the New World, the foodstuffs onboard included hard cheeses, honey, olives, and anchovies—and, of course, barrels and barrels and barrels of beautiful beer. It wasn’t strange for a sailor to be rationed over a gallon of beer a day. Water would spoil below deck, so sailors in the Age of Exploration drank nothing but beer on their long voyages.

2The Success Of Colonial America

Continuing on our early American history theme, the flourishing of colonial America would not have been possible without history’s favorite drink.

Europeans of the era were not fans of drinking water. Back in the old country, it was considered unsafe, so they all drank beer instead. The first settlers had to make do with water, though. The further south they settled, the more likely that this water was to be infected with dangerous pathogens.

When the Pilgrims were contemplating traveling to America in the 1600s, one of their key concerns was getting sick because they had to drink water. The sailors, fearing that the passengers were consuming too much of their beer, dumped the Pilgrims farther north than they would’ve liked. The settlers found the northern water to be tasty to drink, much to their surprise.

In the Virginia colony, 1630 finally brought about some relief—they began to brew beer. The colony had been unsustainable with the previous death rate, so the arrival of alcohol kept them alive.

1Communism

There was no more divisive and influential philosophical doctrine in the 19th and 20th centuries than communism. The original Communist Manifesto, written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, led to over a century of international political turmoil and tension. The book would never have come about without a legendary beer-drinking session between the two men.

Both Engels and Marx were no strangers to the drop. Marx’s first year of university was a “wild rampage,” in the words of his father. The following years saw him regularly knocking back pints while finishing his PhD. Engels’s preferred tipple was wine, with a month-long tour of France seeing him drunk for almost all of it.

While traveling through Paris, Engels arranged to grab a beer with Marx. What followed was far more than a beer or two. As one historian put it, it was 10 beer-soaked days, over which Engels and Marx exchanged ideas, breaking down and formulating what would become the basis of communism—all thanks to the mind-altering amber ale.

Hossey has been following you, so why don’t you follow him on Twitter?

For many years, certain diseases have seemed utterly insurmountable, defying the best efforts of medical science. These diseases, often considered death sentences, have plagued humanity with a sense of hopelessness. But recent advancements in medical research have begun challenging these long-held beliefs, offering glimpses of hope where there once was none. This list explores some of the most remarkable strides made toward curing these seemingly incurable diseases, showcasing the ingenuity and perseverance of scientists and medical professionals.

These advancements are not merely incremental improvements; they represent groundbreaking achievements that could fundamentally alter the course of treatment for these conditions. From innovative gene therapies to revolutionary stem cell treatments, the landscape of medical science is rapidly changing. Each item on this list highlights a unique breakthrough, providing a detailed look at how researchers are tackling these formidable challenges head-on. The facts presented here paint a picture of a future where diseases once thought to be incurable might finally be defeated.

Related: 10 Unsettling Facts about the World’s Deadliest Diseases

10 Historic Remission of DIPG in a Young Patient

In an extraordinary medical breakthrough, a 13-year-old with diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) has achieved complete remission after seven years of experimental treatment. DIPG is notoriously aggressive, often leading to a grim prognosis, with many children succumbing within a year. DIPG is a brain tumor that occurs in an area of the brainstem (the lowest, stem-like part of the brain) called the pons, which controls many of the body’s most vital functions, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

This child’s unexpected recovery has provided a beacon of hope for families affected by this devastating diagnosis. While doctors are still unraveling the factors behind the success, this case emphasizes the critical need for continued innovation in pediatric cancer treatments. This remarkable remission could guide future therapeutic approaches, offering renewed hope in the fight against DIPG and other challenging cancers.^[1]

9 Promising Progress in HIV Cure Research Using Stem Cell Transplants

Several individuals have shown sustained remission from HIV after receiving stem cell transplants from donors with a rare genetic mutation that confers resistance to HIV. These cases, while not yet definitively declared cures, represent significant progress in HIV research and offer hope for future therapeutic approaches.

Stem cell transplantation is a complex and risky procedure, not currently a viable option for most people living with HIV. However, the success observed in these cases demonstrates the potential for this approach to eradicate HIV from the body. Ongoing research aims to refine this method and make it safer and more accessible, potentially leading to a functional cure for HIV.

These advancements highlight the importance of continued investment in HIV research and the possibility of achieving a scalable cure in the future. While stem cell transplantation may not be the ultimate solution, it serves as a crucial stepping stone toward developing more widely applicable and effective treatments for HIV.^[2]

8 Promising Gene-Editing Research in Diabetes Treatment

Chinese scientists have demonstrated promising results in treating diabetes in mice using CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing technology. By targeting the FTO gene associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes, researchers were able to improve insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in mice.

This study marks a significant step forward in understanding the genetic basis of diabetes and exploring potential therapeutic avenues. While the results are encouraging, it’s important to note that this research was conducted on mice, and further studies are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of this approach in humans.

The potential of gene editing to revolutionize diabetes treatment is substantial. This approach could offer a more permanent solution than traditional medication-based management if successful in humans. However, extensive research and clinical trials are necessary before gene editing can become a viable treatment option for diabetes patients.^[3]

7 Breakthrough in Brain Cancer Treatment

Australian Professor Richard Scolyer, diagnosed with an incurable brain tumor almost a year ago, remains cancer-free thanks to his pioneering treatment. Scolyer, a University of Sydney professor, utilized his groundbreaking melanoma research to treat his own glioblastoma. This made him the world’s first brain cancer patient to undergo pre-surgery combination immunotherapy, showing no signs of recurrence nearly 12 months after his diagnosis.

Scolyer’s journey began after a seizure in Poland revealed his grade 4 brain tumor. Using his expertise, he applied the principles of melanoma immunotherapy, which activates the patient’s immune system to fight cancer. The approach has saved thousands of lives from melanoma and now holds promise for brain cancer. Despite the high risk of adverse reactions, Scolyer has experienced positive results, and recent MRI scans confirm the absence of cancer.

His success has far-reaching implications for future brain cancer treatments. By undertaking this experimental therapy, Scolyer has advanced the understanding of brain cancer and opened new avenues for research. His story highlights the potential of personalized medicine and immunotherapy in combating some of the most challenging cancers, offering hope to patients worldwide.^[4]

6 Gene Therapy Brings Hope to Sickle Cell Patients

In a promising development, gene therapy is providing new hope for individuals with sickle cell anemia, a painful and debilitating blood disorder. Tobi Okunseinde from New Jersey is among the first to benefit from this breakthrough. The treatment works by altering his own stem cells to produce normal red blood cells, significantly reducing the frequency and severity of pain crises. Since undergoing the therapy, Tobi has experienced remarkable improvements, regaining the ability to enjoy daily activities without constant pain.

This advancement is seen as a potential game-changer for sickle cell patients who have had limited treatment options. By addressing the underlying genetic cause of the disease, gene therapy offers the possibility of a long-term solution rather than just symptom management. As more patients undergo this treatment, there is growing optimism that it could soon become a standard option, bringing relief and a better quality of life to many affected by sickle cell anemia.^[5]

5 Breakthrough in Hepatitis C Treatment Offers New Hope

Recent advancements in medical science have made it possible to cure hepatitis C, a chronic liver infection that affects millions worldwide. Direct-acting antiviral (DAA) medications have revolutionized treatment, boasting cure rates exceeding 95%. These medications work by targeting the virus directly, preventing it from multiplying and allowing the liver to heal. This development marks a significant improvement over previous treatments, which were less effective and had more severe side effects.

Patients diagnosed with hepatitis C can now look forward to a future free of the virus, significantly reducing their risk of liver complications such as cirrhosis and liver cancer. The success of these treatments highlights the importance of early diagnosis and access to healthcare. As more people receive these life-saving medications, the hope is that hepatitis C could one day be eradicated entirely.^[6]

4 Innovative Eye Drops Restore Sight in Teenager

In a groundbreaking development, new eye drops have successfully restored sight in a teenager suffering from DEB-related vision loss. DEB (dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa) is also known as “butterfly skin disease. These first-of-their-kind eye drops, developed through advanced gene therapy, deliver a specially designed virus to the eye, which corrects the genetic mutation responsible for the vision loss. This treatment marks a significant milestone in ophthalmology, offering hope to many with similar conditions.

The teenager’s remarkable recovery has been closely monitored by medical professionals, who report significant improvements in vision quality and eye health. This success story highlights the potential of gene therapy to address genetic disorders that were once considered untreatable. The eye drops have provided a non-invasive alternative to traditional surgical methods, making treatment more accessible and less risky.

As research continues, experts are optimistic that this innovation could pave the way for new treatments for various forms of genetic blindness. The promising results from this case have sparked further studies and clinical trials, aiming to refine the therapy and expand its availability. The future of treating genetic eye disorders looks brighter than ever, thanks to this pioneering approach.^[7]

3 Gene Therapy Restores Hearing in Children with Genetic Deafness

In a remarkable breakthrough, gene therapy has successfully restored hearing in children with genetic deafness. Researchers conducted a study where they introduced a modified gene into the inner ear cells of the affected children. This gene therapy approach targeted the genetic mutations responsible for their hearing loss, effectively reversing the condition and allowing the children to hear for the first time. The study marks a significant advancement in treating hereditary hearing impairments, offering new hope to many families.

The therapy’s success was evident in the children’s improved auditory responses and speech development. For many, this was the first time they could experience sound, profoundly impacting their quality of life. The positive outcomes from this study demonstrate the potential of gene therapy to address various forms of genetic deafness, paving the way for future treatments that could eliminate the need for hearing aids or cochlear implants.

Ongoing research and clinical trials are expected to refine this gene therapy technique, making it safer and more effective. The future looks promising for those with genetic hearing loss as this innovative approach continues to evolve and reach more patients worldwide.^[8]

2 Breakthrough Treatment for Baldness on the Horizon

A groundbreaking new treatment for baldness has shown remarkable promise, bringing new hope to individuals affected by hair loss. This innovative approach utilizes stem cells to regenerate hair follicles, and the results are astounding. Clinical trials have demonstrated significant hair regrowth, with some participants experiencing near-total restoration of their hair.

This development has the potential to transform the way baldness is treated, shifting away from temporary fixes like hair transplants and medications. By harnessing the body’s natural ability to produce hair, this treatment addresses the root cause of hair loss. As research advances, this game-changing solution could become widely available, offering a permanent answer for those struggling with baldness.^[9]

1 Stem Cell Therapy Helps Paralyzed Man Walk Again

A man who was paralyzed from a severe spinal cord injury has regained the ability to walk after undergoing stem cell therapy. This treatment involved injecting stem cells into the damaged spinal cord, promoting nerve regeneration and restoring motor function. The patient’s progress has been closely monitored, showing significant improvement in mobility and independence.

This success story underscores the potential of stem cell therapy in treating spinal cord injuries and other neurological conditions. While further research is necessary, these findings offer hope for developing effective treatments for paralysis. The ongoing studies aim to refine this approach, making it more accessible and beneficial for a broader range of patients.^[10]

Advancements in technology have revolutionized the way we communicate, travel, and do business. But they’ve also had a profound effect on our health. Many people complain about video game, smartphone, and Internet addictions as well as the increasing isolation fueled by our reliance on communication methods that let us avoid ever coming face-to-face with another human being.

Ironically, this same technology has also turned our globe into the information equivalent of a small city or village. With all the sharing of medical data and the improvements in powerful equipment to make and keep us well, advances in medicine are occurring faster than ever.

Designer genetics, reversing the aging process, and a cure for the common cold all sound like futuristic medicine. But considerable progress was made on all these things and more during the past year. Here are 10 recent medical breakthroughs and how they will impact the future.

10 Successful Artificial Womb

Scientists have created an artificial womb capable of allowing very premature fetuses to develop normally for approximately one month. The device was tested on eight fetal lambs, which were extracted from their mother’s wombs prematurely and transferred to an artificial womb. The lambs continued to develop, showing normal growth and maturation until they were “delivered” after four weeks.

The artificial womb consists of a clear plastic bag filled with synthetic amniotic fluid. The umbilical cord of the fetus is connected to a machine that provides nutrition and oxygen to the blood, similar to the placenta.

A normal pregnancy lasts approximately 40 weeks. Thousands of babies are born very prematurely every year—after less than 26 weeks in utero. Only about half of these babies survive, and those that do suffer severe complications such as cerebral palsy, paralysis, and mental retardation.

An artificial womb approved for use with humans would allow these early births to continue developing in a womb-like environment for a longer period of time. Creators of the device hope to test it on human babies within the next five years.^[1]

9 First Human-Pig Hybrid

This year, researchers successfully created a human-pig hybrid, something scientifically referred to as a chimera. A chimera is an organism that contains cells from two different species.

One way to create a chimera is to introduce the organ of one animal into the body of another, but this carries a high risk of the host body rejecting the foreign organ. The other way to create a chimera is to begin at the embryonic level, introducing the cells of one animal into the embryo of another and allowing them to develop together.

Early chimera experiments resulted in the successful growth of rat cells inside a mouse embryo. Mouse embryos genetically modified to produce a rat’s pancreas, eyes, and heart had all developed normally. The promising results led to experiments with human cells.

Pig organs are quite similar to human organs, which is why the animal was chosen as a host. Human cells were injected into early stage pig embryos. The hybrid embryos were then implanted in surrogate sows and allowed to develop through the first trimester before being removed and examined. The result was 186 chimeric embryos that contained the beginning stages of important organs such as the heart and liver.

Being able to produce human organs and tissue inside another species is a big step toward the ultimate goal of lab-grown human organs, which have the potential to save thousands of lives. Currently, 22 people die every day while awaiting an organ transplant.^[2]

8 Flu-Fighting Frog Slime

A frog species that was recently discovered in southern India has flu-fighting slime. The secretions on a frog’s skin contain short chains of amino acids, or peptides, which act as a guard against bacteria. Scientists tested the peptides of the Indian frog and discovered that one of them, urumin, is capable of protecting against the flu.

Each strain of the flu contains two surface proteins, hemagglutinin and neuraminidase. Flu strains are named for the variation of each protein they contain. For example, H1N1 has the H1 version of hemagglutinin and the N1 version of neuraminidase.

The most common strains of seasonal flu viruses contain H1. Urumin has effectively killed every type of H1 flu strain tested, even strains that have developed a resistance to current antiviral treatments.

Current medications that treat the flu target the neuraminidase protein of the virus, which mutates more often than the hemagglutinin. A drug that specifically targets the hemagglutinin would be effective against more strains of the flu and could provide the basis for a universal vaccine.^[3]

7 New Melanoma Treatment

A team of researchers at Michigan State University has discovered a potential drug that could drastically reduce the mortality rate of melanoma. This is the deadliest form of skin cancer primarily because the disease can quickly metastasize (spread through the body and affect organs such as the lungs and brain). This happens through a transcription process in which our genes produce RNA molecules and certain proteins in melanoma tumors that allow the cancer cells to spread.

A new chemical compound has shown success in interrupting this cycle. The compound shuts down the transcription process, which prevents the cancer from being able to spread so aggressively. In lab studies of its effect on melanoma cells, the compound was successful in reducing the spread of the cancer by 90 percent.

The potential drug is still a few years away from human trials, but researchers are optimistic about the possibilities. In addition to treating melanoma, the compound will also be tested for its ability to halt the spread of other types of cancer.^[4]

6 Bad Memory Eraser

People who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder or other trauma-related anxiety attacks could one day have the ability to simply erase their bad memories.

Scientists have been studying this for years. Recently, a pair of researchers at the University of California–Riverside (UCR) experienced a breakthrough when examining the effects of memory. They specifically looked at the pathways that create memories and allow us to access them.

When a traumatic event occurs, the brain’s pathway to that memory is stronger than pathways to memories that are not associated with trauma. This is why a person can remember every detail of a horrific event that happened years earlier but fail to recall what he ate for breakfast that morning.

To test traumatized mice, the UCR researchers played a high-pitched noise and shocked the mice at the same time. Predictably, playing the sound again caused the mice to freeze in fear.

Using a technique called optogenetics, the researchers were able to weaken the connections between the neurons associated with the pathway of the high-pitched noise. The mice were once again exposed to that sound but no longer showed any signs of fear. Their memory of the traumatic event had been effectively erased.

An important aspect of the technique is that only targeted memories are affected, so trauma sufferers would be able to forget their painful experience without forgetting how to tie their shoes.^[5]

5 Spider Venom Stroke Treatments

You would not want to get bitten by an Australian Darling Downs funnel web spider. Their venom can kill a human in 15 minutes. But it also contains an ingredient that can protect brain cells from the damage inflicted during a stroke.

When someone has a stroke, blood flow to the brain is interrupted, which starves the brain of oxygen. The brain reacts by functioning in an abnormal way that produces acid. This acid causes brain cells to die.

Hi1a, a particular molecule found in the Australian spider’s venom, has been shown to protect brain cells from stroke-related damage. When Hi1a was administered to rats two hours after an induced stroke, the extent of brain damage was reduced by 80 percent. When researchers waited until eight hours after a stroke to administer Hi1a, the amount of brain damage was still 65 percent less than what was seen in untreated rats.

There are currently no medications that protect stroke victims from brain damage. Some treatments will break up blood clots in the brain or control hemorrhaging to reduce injury to the brain. But nothing is available at this time to reverse brain damage from a stroke. If Hi1a proves successful in human trials, it would drastically improve the outcome for stroke victims.^[6]

4 Human Trials Of Antiaging Treatment

An antiaging treatment is one step closer to hitting the market. After animal trials showed incredible success in reversing the aging process of cells, human trials are currently underway.

Our cells are capable of repairing themselves, but their ability to do so declines as we get older. A certain metabolite called NAD+ is present in every cell and crucial to the repair process.

A team of researchers from the University of New South Wales conducted trials involving NMN, which makes up half of an NAD+ molecule. After NMN was given to elderly mice, they exhibited an increased ability to repair damaged cells. After just one week, the cells of older mice that had been treated with NMN were functioning just as well as the cells of younger mice.^[7]

A final step in the trial included exposing mice to radiation. Mice that had been pretreated with NMN showed lower levels of cell damage than ones that had not. Even mice treated with NMN after exposure exhibited less cell damage.

An effective antiaging treatment would not be limited to use in elderly patients. Astronauts experience accelerated aging when they are exposed to cosmic radiation. People who travel on airplanes or undergo X-rays are also exposed to radiation, albeit a much smaller amount. And childhood cancer survivors experience accelerated cell aging, which leads many to suffer from a chronic disease such as Alzheimer’s before they reach age 45.

3 Early Detection Cancer Tracking

Scientists from Rutgers University discovered a way to successfully track micrometastases, tiny tumors in the body that are too small to be detected by current screening methods. This new technique involves injecting tiny glow sticks into the bloodstream and waiting to see where they land.

The Rutgers team used nanoparticles that emit shortwave infrared light. The nanoparticles are designed to stick to cancer cells as they move throughout the body. In early studies, a test done on mice showed that the nanoparticles accurately tracked breast cancer cells as they spread to various locations in the critter’s legs and adrenal glands.

The nanoparticle method is capable of detecting a tumor months before MRI scans would be able to. Researchers believe the technique will be used for human cancer screenings within the next five years.^[8]

2 A Cure For The Common Cold

For centuries, humans have been trying to find a cure for the common cold. An ancient Egyptian medical document dated 1550 BC instructs someone suffering from a cold to recite “in association with the administration of milk of one who has borne a male child, and fragrant gum” to cure themselves.

Today’s treatments are about as effective. Vitamin C tablets, Echinacea teas, and various over-the-counter medications fail to work against the common cold.

But that may be about to change. While many viruses are responsible for causing the common cold, rhinovirus is the most prevalent, causing up to 75 percent of infections. A team of researchers at Edinburgh Napier University found success earlier this year when testing certain antimicrobial peptides.

The team synthesized peptides found in pigs and sheep. Then the researchers tested the peptides against lung cells that had been infected with rhinovirus. The peptides were successful in killing the virus.^[9]

Researchers are working to modify the peptides to be even more effective against the rhinovirus before developing them into a drug capable of curing the common cold.

1 Embryonic DNA Repair

For the first time, scientists have successfully edited the DNA in a human embryo without causing any unintended harmful mutations.

An international team of scientists conducted an experiment using a powerful new gene-editing technique. Sperm was obtained from a donor carrying a genetic mutation that causes cardiomyopathy, a disorder that weakens the heart and causes irregular heartbeats, heart valve problems, and heart failure.

The sperm was used to fertilize donor eggs, and then the gene-editing tool was used to alter the mutation. Scientists described it as a microscopic surgery in which they administered a precise cut to the mutated gene.

When the gene was cut, the embryo was triggered to repair the defective gene on its own. The technique was used on 58 embryos, and the gene mutation was successfully corrected in 70 percent of them. Most importantly, the correction did not result in unintended defects in other areas of the DNA, as was the case in earlier experiments.

The embryos were not used to create babies. More testing is required before that would be possible.^[10]

Critics of genetic modification in embryos are concerned about a few factors. Changes made to the DNA of an embryo would be passed down in future generations, so any mistakes made in the gene-editing process could ultimately result in new genetic diseases. There are also concerns that the research could lead to “designer babies,” where parents pick and choose the traits of their children before birth, effectively crafting a child with certain physical aspects and abilities.

Scientists researching embryonic genetic modification state that their work is only aimed at preventing genetic diseases, not creating made-to-order offspring. Diseases that could be prevented with embryonic gene editing include Huntington’s disease, cystic fibrosis, and cases of breast and ovarian cancer caused by mutations in the BRCA gene.

In a year when science has become both our saving grace against a global pandemic and a target of political pundits, it might be a good time to look back at all the good that science has done for us these past few years.

Whether making discoveries that can change little aspects of our daily lives or finding cures for diseases that have hounded humanity, scientists have been hard at work trying to push us toward a brighter future.

10 Recent Scientific Breakthroughs And Discoveries

8 mRNA Vaccines

Although most people know that DNA is the genetic material inside our cells, the role of mRNA may be less understood. DNA contains instructions that guide our cells to make the proteins we need. As DNA is so important, the one copy of DNA we have in each cell cannot be damaged.

To prevent any damage from happening, our cells make many copies of the sections of DNA that they need to guide their protein making. These copies are called mRNA copies. If they get damaged, they are just discarded.

With that in mind, scientists have found a way to use mRNA to make a new type of vaccine. Viruses infect human cells by injecting their DNA into the cells and forcing our cellular machinery to make viral proteins using this DNA.

Most vaccines involve taking whole inactivated viruses or pieces of the viruses and injecting them. This teaches our bodies how to make antibodies against the virus.

A new vaccine in clinical testing eliminates the need for viruses in the vaccine. Instead, the new Moderna vaccine aims to tackle the virus causing COVID-19 by injecting us with a small piece of mRNA that teaches our cells how to make a spike protein found on the outside of the virus. When our cells make this protein, our immune system attacks it by producing antibodies, giving us the same type of protection we would get from exposure to the virus.^[1]

This method has greatly simplified the vaccine development process, which normally takes over 10 years. It took a little over two months to go from the planning phase to the first clinical trial of Moderna’s vaccine. If all goes well, it may be the vaccine that ends the coronavirus pandemic.

7 Mind-Controlled Prostheses

In 2016, a team from the University of Pittsburgh, the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), and the University of Chicago gave one man the gift of a lifetime. Paralyzed after a car accident in 2004, Nathan Copeland lost full use of his body from the chest down. Amazingly, he is now able to both feel and control a prosthetic limb with only his mind.^[2]

This huge scientific leap was made possible by implanting electrodes in the areas of Copeland’s brain that control movement and touch sensations. When Copeland thinks about moving his arm, these electrodes interpret the activity from his brain cells to move the robotic arm. When something touches the robotic hand, sensors send electrical signals that stimulate Copeland’s brain to feel the touch.

The National Institutes of Health is providing a combined $7 million to Pitt, UPMC, and Chicago to continue the research.

6 Understanding Autism

Autism has long been a misunderstood disorder as the cause has been difficult to trace. This has led to an influx of theories, ranging from the scientific approach of suggesting it is a genetic disorder to the Facebook groups and bloggers blaming it on vaccinations. People with autism generally lack social and verbal communication skills or exhibit repetitive behaviors. The extent of the symptoms can vary widely, making it a spectrum disorder.

By analyzing the DNA of autistic children against the DNA from their parents, scientists at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto have made an important discovery. There are regions of DNA in the body called tandem repeats. They are a pattern of the DNA sequence that is repeated multiple times.

These Toronto scientists discovered that autistic children often have double or triple the number of tandem repeats that their parents have. The larger these tandem repeats are, the more they impair the function of the gene. In autistic children, tandem repeats have been found in genes related to brain function.^[3]

By identifying this strange phenomenon, scientists may now have a new way to diagnose autism. In addition, this provides a clearer understanding of what causes autism, meaning new treatments may be on the horizon. Some scientists also believe that a similar type of tandem repeat expansion may be the cause of epilepsy and disorders like schizophrenia.

5 A Treatment For Alzheimer’s Disease

In the brain, the tau protein found in neurons helps to hold their axons together. Neurons are nerve cells, and they send signals across their axons. By sending these signals, we experience sensations like touch.

In people with Alzheimer’s disease, tau proteins are tangled up inside the nerve axons. This prevents signals from traveling down the axons and leads to problems with brain functioning. In addition, the buildup of another protein called beta-amyloid forms clumps between neurons, also limiting neuron functioning.

In 2019, NeuroEM Therapeutics, Inc., tested a wearable cap that sends electromagnetic waves through the brain to break apart the buildup of these proteins. The first clinical study of eight patients found that seven experienced a return of some cognitive function. More extensive studies are underway to try to confirm these results.^[4]

Independent laboratories performed similar experiments on mice and found that cognitive function was improved from exposure to electromagnetic waves. Although it is still early days for this treatment, it may provide a ray of hope to those suffering from Alzheimer’s. So far, drug treatments for Alzheimer’s disease have done little but mildly slow down its progression, so finding new approaches to this problem is always exciting.

Top 10 Scientific Breakthroughs Of The Month (March 2019)

4 Universal Flu Vaccines

We need to get flu shots every year because flu virus strains change annually. Flu vaccines produce an immune response against the head of a protein on the flu virus. (The protein is called HA).

The problem is that the HA head changes often because it can mutate rapidly. As a result, we need new flu shots every year to provide immunity against the new HA head.^[5]

This problem may soon be eliminated. It turns out that the stem of the HA protein, which holds the head, does not change. It is relatively constant among strains of the flu.

A new vaccine created by the scientists of NIAID’s Vaccine Research Center has just entered clinical testing, and it targets this stem instead of the head. If this is successful, a single vaccine would make us immune to most strains of the flu for a much longer time. It will likely be a while before we know the effectiveness of this vaccine. But it is a big step toward finding a universal one-time-only flu shot.

3 The Medusavirus Discovery

A new virus isolated from a hot spring in Japan has been dubbed the “Medusavirus.” This name comes from the mythical monster Medusa who would turn her victims to stone when they looked into her eyes. In similar fashion, the Medusavirus turns its amoeba hosts into stone by hijacking their cellular machinery.

Luckily, this virus cannot infect humans. But it does have a rather interesting set of proteins called histones. They are used to package DNA in the nuclei of cells. However, viruses do not have nuclei, and the Medusavirus is no exception.

Scientists believe that this may provide insight into how eukaryotic life came to be. Eukaryotes are cells with nuclei, like the ones that make up our bodies. When viruses infect host cells, they tend to leave a mark on the surviving host cell’s DNA. The virus sometimes picks up DNA sequences from the host as well. Basically, the host and virus evolve together.

Thus, figuring out how the Medusavirus obtained these histone proteins could give us insight into how early cells evolved to become the complex modern cells of today.^[6]

2 Metal-Eating Microbes

For years, scientists and engineers have wondered why lumps of manganese oxide collect on the seafloor and why this compound seems to build up in water pipes. Caltech scientist Jared Leadbeater finally answered some of these questions when he left glassware containing manganese carbonate to soak in his sink while he was away on a work trip.

When he returned, the normally cream-colored manganese carbonate had turned into black manganese oxide. After replicating the situation in an experiment with both sterilized and unsterilized jars, Leadbeater found that only the unsterilized jars had turned black. This means that some sort of microbe caused the reaction.

After further testing, Leadbeater and his team narrowed the list down to two microbes. They discovered that these bacteria cells could eat the electrons in manganese to make their own energy. This leaves manganese oxide behind.

It is the first time that scientists have found microbes that can use manganese as an energy source. This discovery may help us to understand how manganese, a very common element, helped to shape the evolution of the planet.^[7]

1 A Cure For Ebola

Although we are in the midst of a new coronavirus pandemic, it was not too long ago that pandemic fears were focused on Ebola. This viral illness starts off with fevers and the shakes. It can then progress to uncontrolled bleeding and organ failure.

This often-fatal disease has been researched for years. In 2019, a clinical trial identified a new drug therapy that reduced the death rate from 75 percent without treatment to 29 percent with the new therapy. If Ebola is treated very early, the death rate dropped all the way to 6 percent.

This new drug by Regeneron contains a mixture of antibodies, which are made by our immune cells to clear infections from our bodies. These antibodies specially attack the Ebola virus.

It is difficult to make antibodies in a lab as they need to work in the human body without being attacked by the immune system. In addition, the Ebola virus can change shape. This is why a mixture of different antibodies must be used in the treatment. This new therapy is currently being tested and may soon become a lifesaving tool.^[8]

Top 10 Scientific Breakthroughs Of The Month (May 2019)