Flying aircraft in World War I was a perilous occupation, and many airmen lost their lives even before seeing combat. In this roundup of the 10 beloved forgotten Allied aces, we celebrate those celebrated celebrities of the skies who captured the public’s imagination yet remain largely absent from modern histories.

Why These 10 Beloved Forgotten Heroes Still Matter

Beyond the well‑known names like the Red Baron, a host of daring pilots earned fame, medals, and adoration during the Great War. Their stories of bravery, tragedy, and occasional controversy deserve a fresh look, especially as we commemorate the centenary of a conflict that reshaped aviation forever.

10 Albert Ball

Manfred von Richthofen, better known as the Red Baron, once called Albert Ball “by far the best English flying man.” Born in Nottingham on 14 August 1896, Ball enlisted with the Notts and Derby Regiment at the outbreak of war and quickly rose to lieutenant. He first pursued private flying lessons before transferring to the Royal Flying Corps, earning his pilot’s wings in January 1916 and soon after taking on reconnaissance duties with several squadrons.

The young ace notched his inaugural kill—a German reconnaissance pilot—in May 1916, and within weeks he was racking up as many as three victories a day. By his 20th birthday in August 1916, Ball had already been promoted to acting captain and had claimed 17 enemy aircraft. The British press turned him into a household name, and crowds in Nottingham would mob him whenever he returned on leave.

In a heartfelt letter to his parents, Ball confessed that seeing an enemy plane go down was his saddest moment, yet he believed it was a matter of “his life or theirs.” On 26 September 1916 he was awarded both the Distinguished Service Order and a bar on the same day. By the following year he had amassed 44 confirmed victories and another 25 unconfirmed claims. In his final correspondence, dated 6 May 1917, Ball admitted he felt increasingly like a murderer and hoped the war would end soon, weary of endless killing.

The day after that poignant letter, Ball entered a fierce dogfight over Douai, France, where he faced the Red Baron’s brother, Lothar von Richthofen. Ball managed to puncture Lothar’s fuel tank, forcing a crash‑landing, but a German pilot then shot down Ball’s aircraft, claiming his life. Though von Richthofen was credited, the exact shooter remains uncertain. Ball’s reputation as a “lone wolf” endured; he famously tackled as many as six enemy aircraft solo, stalking them from below before delivering the fatal blow. Posthumously, he was honoured with the Victoria Cross, France’s Legion of Honour, and Russia’s Order of St. George (4th class).

9 Georges Guynemer

When Georges Guynemer first tried to enlist in 1914, French physicians dismissed him as too frail to serve. Leveraging his father’s influence, he secured a position as an aviation mechanic, and by March 1915 he entered pilot training, earning his wings just a month later. His first combat triumph arrived on 19 July 1915, when he and his gunner downed a German Aviatik, shortly thereafter joining the elite Storks squadron.

Guynemer’s wartime résumé reads like an action film: over 600 aerial engagements, seven shoot‑downs where he survived, and a flood of letters from adoring fans—mostly schoolgirls proposing marriage and youngsters begging for autographs. Flying his beloved SPAD VII, nicknamed “Old Charles,” he could dispatch up to four enemy aircraft in a single day. He later modified the aircraft, installing a single‑shot 37 mm cannon that fired through a hollowed‑out propeller shaft, christening the upgraded machine “Magic Machine,” with which he added two more victories.

The final chapter of Guynemer’s story unfolded on 11 September 1917, when he was seen attacking an Aviatik near Poelcapelle, northwest of Ypres. A week later, a London newspaper reported him missing in action, while a German publication claimed that Kurt Wissemann of Jasta 3 had shot him down. His body was never recovered, and for months the French public refused to accept his death. Nonetheless, his official tally stood at 54 confirmed kills, cementing his status as France’s Ace of Aces.

8 Eddie Rickenbacker

Edward Vernon Rickenbacker entered the world on 8 October 1890 in Columbus, Ohio, and by the time the United States joined the war in 1917, he was a celebrated race‑car driver earning roughly $40,000 annually. Despite being 27—beyond the age limit for pilot training—Rickenbacker’s reputation as a daring driver earned him a spot as a driver for Colonel William “Billy” Mitchell. He persistently begged Mitchell for a chance to fly, eventually falsifying his age to meet the 25‑year requirement.

After an intense 17‑day stint as a student pilot, Rickenbacker was commissioned a lieutenant and posted to the 94th Aero Squadron. The squadron’s members, many Ivy League graduates, initially looked down on him for lacking a college degree, but Rickenbacker’s grit quickly silenced the snobbery. He overcame a fear of flying and a distaste for aerobatics, crafting a unique combat style that emphasized closing in on foes before opening fire. His first triumph came on 29 April 1918, a shared victory with Captain James Norman Hall, followed by his inaugural solo kill eight days later.

Rickenbacker’s daring reached a crescendo when he engaged seven German aircraft, downing two before slipping away—a feat that earned him the French Croix de Guerre and the United States Medal of Honor. By war’s end, he was celebrated as America’s Ace of Aces with 26 victories. Though he never crashed during combat, he survived two post‑war crashes in 1941 and 1942; the latter left him and his companions adrift for over 20 days. He passed away at 83 in Zurich, Switzerland.

7 William Bishop

William Bishop was born on 8 February 1894 in Owen Sound, Ontario, and attended the Royal Military College, where he enlisted during his senior year as World War I erupted. His equestrian background earned him a posting with the Canadian Mounted Rifles in London in June 1915. A chance sighting of an aircraft in a nearby field that July sparked an obsession with flying, prompting his transfer to the British Royal Flying Corps in December 1915 and the acquisition of his pilot’s licence in 1917.

Bishop’s first dogfight victory came on 25 March 1917, when he shot down a German Albatross. Within the next two months, he added another 21 kills. His most celebrated feat occurred on 2 June 1917, when he single‑handedly assaulted a German aerodrome at Arras, an action that earned him the Victoria Cross. He also received the Distinguished Service Order and the Military Cross for earlier exploits.

In 1918 Bishop took command of No. 85 Squadron—nicknamed the “Flying Foxes”—and led them on the French front. By June 1918 he had accumulated over 70 victories, including an astonishing five German aircraft in just 12 minutes on 19 June, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. After the war he toured giving speeches about his aerial adventures, and during World II he promoted the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. Controversy later surrounded his Victoria Cross claim, with some historians questioning the veracity of the raid and noting missing wartime documents. Near the end of his life Bishop admitted that some of his stories were likely embellished, yet he remains recognized as one of the war’s premier aces. He died on 8 November 1956 in Florida.

6 Rene Fonck

Rene Fonck, born 27 March 1894 in France, entered the French army in 1914 and began flight training the following year. He earned his first aerial victory on 6 August 1916, downing an enemy aircraft over the Western Front. Though not a flamboyant flyer, Fonck proved to be an exceptionally efficient shooter, famed for his disciplined ammunition use and his reluctance to gamble recklessly.

One of his most memorable exploits unfolded on 9 May 1918, when he shot down six German aircraft over Montdidier—a feat he would repeat later. By war’s end Fonck had amassed 75 confirmed kills, just five shy of the Red Baron’s record, making him the most successful surviving Allied fighter pilot. He claimed even more victories—over 50—beyond official tallies, underscoring his extraordinary skill.

Despite being France’s Ace of Aces, Fonck’s fame was eclipsed by Georges Guynemer’s legendary status. Unperturbed, Fonck boasted that his proudest moment was avenging Guynemer by defeating Captain Kurt Wissemann, the pilot credited with Guynemer’s death. After the war he worked as a racing and demonstration pilot, later serving as an inspector of fighter aviation for the French Air Force. He passed away in June 1953 at the age of 59.

5 James McCudden

James McCudden was born on 28 March 1895 into a British military family and followed his father’s footsteps by joining the Royal Engineers in 1910. After training as a mechanic, he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps in 1913. He earned his pilot’s wings in 1916 and was dispatched to France as a sergeant, scoring his first kill in September of that year.

McCudden quickly earned a reputation as a skilled tactician and a protective mentor to younger pilots. In 1917 he received both the Military Medal (as a non‑commissioned officer) and the Military Cross after his commission. His heroics peaked in December 1917 when he single‑handedly shot down two of eight enemy aircraft his patrol engaged, followed by another two the next morning. These daring actions formed the core of the citation for his Victoria Cross, awarded in April 1918.

Tragically, on 9 July 1918 McCudden’s aircraft suffered an engine failure, leading to a fatal crash. By that point he had accumulated 57 confirmed victories and a host of decorations, including the Distinguished Service Order and a bar to his Military Cross, cementing his legacy as one of the war’s most decorated combatants.

4 Andrew Beauchamp‑Proctor

Andrew Beauchamp‑Proctor entered the world on 4 September 1894 in South Africa’s Cape Province. While studying engineering at the University of Cape Town, World War I broke out, prompting him to abandon his studies and enlist. He first served as a signaler with the Duke of Edinburgh’s Own Rifles in South‑West Africa before joining the Royal Flying Corps in March 1917.

Standing a modest 157 cm (5 ft 2 in), Proctor had to modify his seat to reach the controls of his aircraft. Assigned to 84 Squadron in July 1917, his early career was rocky—he crash‑landed three times before finally securing his first kill on 3 January 1918, downing a German two‑seat. By May 1918 he had amassed 21 victories, including a spectacular day on 19 May when he shot down five enemy aircraft.

Proctor soon shifted his focus to balloon busting, a perilous task that involved attacking heavily defended observation balloons. He achieved a record nine balloon kills in a single day on 9 August 1918, solidifying his reputation as the RFC’s premier balloon buster. By war’s end he had tallied 54 confirmed victories—38 aircraft and 16 balloons—making him South Africa’s highest‑scoring ace. His decorations included the Military Cross, Distinguished Service Order, Distinguished Flying Cross, and the Victoria Cross.

Tragically, on 21 June 1921, while preparing for an air show at RAF Hendon, Proctor’s aircraft crashed, killing him at just 26 years old. His body was returned to South Africa for a state funeral.

3 Robert A. Little

Robert Alexander Little was born on 19 July 1895 in Melbourne, Australia. After being turned away by the Point Cook Military Flying School, he eventually earned his flying certificate and joined the Royal Naval Air Service in England in 1915. By June 1916 he was posted to Dunkirk, and in October that year he became a member of the 8th Naval Squadron, flying the nimble Sopwith Pup.

Little’s first aerial victory arrived on 1 November 1916, and he added two more by year‑end. March 1917 saw him down nine enemy aircraft, earning a promotion to flight lieutenant the following month. The squadron later upgraded to Sopwith Triplanes and subsequently to Sopwith Camels. Nicknamed “Rikki” after the mongoose in Rudyard Kipling’s tales, Little amassed 37 victories by August 1917, garnering the Distinguished Service Cross with a bar, the French Croix de Guerre, and the Distinguished Service Order (with a bar added in September 1917). He became flight commander in January 1918.

Although a superb shooter, Little was a notoriously poor pilot, often crash‑landing his aircraft. In March 1918 he transferred to 203 Squadron, but his career was cut short on 21 May 1918 when he was mortally wounded in the groin while attempting to intercept a formation of German bombers. He died with an official tally of 47 victories, making him Australia’s top‑scoring ace of the war.

2 Raymond Collishaw

Raymond Collishaw was born in 1893 in Nanaimo, British Columbia, and entered the Royal Naval Air Service as a probationary flight sub‑lieutenant in January 1916. He secured his first victory in October of that year, downing future German ace Ludwig Hanstein.

One of Collishaw’s most harrowing experiences occurred late in 1916 when six German aircraft attacked him. Bullets ripped through his instrument panel and shattered his goggles, leaving him partially blind. Despite the chaos, he managed to evade the first attacker, which crashed into trees, and then shot down the second. Barely able to see and without instruments, he crash‑landed in a field, only to discover he was in enemy territory. Undeterred, he promptly took off again and later touched down in a French field near Verdun, an act that earned him the Croix de Guerre.

Promoted to flight commander with the 10th Naval Squadron in 1917, Collishaw led the famed “Black Flight,” a group of five Canadian pilots who painted their Sopwith Triplanes black and became notorious on the Ypres front. The squadron repeatedly challenged the Richthofen Circus, even engaging the Red Baron’s unit on occasion. After the Black Flight disbanded in July 1917, Collishaw’s tally stood at 37 victories. He later commanded the 13th Naval Squadron and the 203 Squadron of the Royal Air Force, finishing the war with 62 victories—only Billy Bishop and Edward Mannock eclipsed his total. Unlike many peers, Collishaw stayed in the RAF after the war, leading British forces against the Bolsheviks in Russia and commanding Allied air forces in North Africa during World II. Though twice nominated for the Victoria Cross, he never received it. He passed away in 1976 at age 82, and in 1999 Nanaimo’s airport terminal was named in his honour.

1 Edward ‘Mick’ Mannock

When World War I erupted in 1914, 27‑year‑old Edward “Mick” Mannock was employed by a telephone company in Turkey. After Turkey entered the war on Germany’s side, Mannock and his colleagues were imprisoned, and following a failed escape attempt he endured solitary confinement, which gradually eroded his health. The American consulate managed to secure his release in April 1915, and he returned to Britain with a deep‑seated hatred for the Germans.

Back home, Mannock joined the Royal Army Medical Corps as a sergeant, tasked with treating enemy prisoners—a duty that conflicted with his bitter experiences in Turkey. Eventually he transferred to the Royal Flying Corps, being posted to 40 Squadron at Treizennes in April 1917. Initially regarded as a coward and a know‑it‑all by his peers, his reputation shifted dramatically as he began shooting down German aircraft.

Despite his animosity toward the enemy, Mannock occasionally displayed unexpected compassion. On one occasion he examined the wreckage of a German plane he had downed, feeling like a murderer. Such moments took a psychological toll; he was observed trembling and even weeping during leaves. Nonetheless, he pressed on, and within a year of his first kill he amassed 73 victories, becoming Britain’s most successful pilot. He earned the Military Cross (with a bar), the Distinguished Service Order (with two bars), and numerous other decorations.

On 26 July 1918 Mannock achieved his final victory but, in a fatal miscalculation, descended too low to observe the downed aircraft. German ground fire struck his plane, and he crashed. Earlier he had confided that his greatest fear was to burn to death in a fireball without a parachute, so he kept a revolver in his cockpit. Whether he used it in his final moments remains unknown. His death cemented his place as the most decorated and highest‑scoring British fighter pilot of the war.

When we talk about “10 flying aces,” the usual suspects are the big‑name nations—Germany, the United States, the Soviet Union. But a handful of daring pilots from smaller, often overlooked countries also earned the coveted ace status by downing five or more enemy aircraft. Below, we rank ten of these remarkable flyers, each hailing from a nation that rarely makes the headline‑grabbing ace lists.

10 Mato Dukovac: Croatia

When Croatia declared independence in 1941, it quickly assembled an air force to aid the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. Mato Dukovac was among the inaugural batch of Croatian pilots trained by the Germans, and they were dispatched to the Eastern Front almost immediately after completing their training. On Dukovac’s twelfth sortie he managed to down a Soviet I‑16 fighter. A few days later, however, his squadron was pulled back to Croatia for a transfer.

German command soon found itself short of pilots on the Soviet front and ordered Dukovac’s unit back into action. With the additional combat exposure, Dukovac rapidly amassed an impressive tally of Soviet kills. After a second and third tour of duty he rose to squadron leader. By 1944, the crumbling German logistics forced another front‑line deployment, but this time his unit received no aircraft. Enraged, Dukovac defected to the Soviet Union, where he was assigned to train Yugoslav pilots. Growing increasingly dissatisfied, he later stole an aircraft, fled to Italy, and spent the remainder of the war in a refugee camp.

Post‑war, Dukovac developed strong anti‑Israeli sentiments and volunteered to fly for Arab forces during the 1948 Arab‑Israeli War, piloting aging T‑6 Texan bombers. He later emigrated to Canada, entered the business world, and passed away in 1990. His wartime record stands at 44 confirmed kills, making him the highest‑scoring Croatian ace of World War II.

9 Andres Garcia La Calle: Spain

The Spanish Civil War served as a proving ground for many nations before the outbreak of World War II. Both sides fielded air forces, and the Republican side initially operated outdated aircraft before receiving more advanced Soviet planes. During these early stages, Andres Garcia La Calle emerged as one of the top fighter pilots, scoring his first victories in antiquated biplanes.

In 1936 La Calle was appointed commander of a 25‑plane fighter squadron that uniquely included a contingent of U.S. mercenary pilots who had joined the Republic to fight fascism. Renowned for his prudent leadership, La Calle avoided needless risks, making service under his command highly coveted.

Following heroic actions at the Battle of Jarama, La Calle was promoted to oversee all Republican fighter units and traveled to the Soviet Union for additional training. Despite his effectiveness, the Nationalist air force vastly outnumbered his forces, and a shortage of seasoned pilots limited his impact. After the Republic’s defeat, La Calle fled to France and later to Mexico, where he lived out his remaining years. He logged 11 confirmed kills during his wartime career.

8 Leonard Allan Payne: Swaziland

Leonard Allan Payne descended from British settlers in Swaziland. In 1917 he enlisted in the Royal Air Force and was sent to the Western Front during the First World War. He piloted a Bristol F.2 Fighter—a two‑seat reconnaissance aircraft that proved surprisingly effective as a combat platform. After a slow start, Payne distinguished himself as one of the RAF’s premier F.2 pilots, ultimately achieving 11 kills in his aircraft.

Payne earned the Military Cross for an audacious sortie near the war’s end. Tasked with a deep‑penetration reconnaissance mission, he flew a mere 60 metres (200 ft) above the ground, 14 kilometres (9 mi) behind enemy lines. During this daring flight he shot down three enemy fighters, strafed ground troops, and returned to base with his aircraft riddled with bullet holes. Tragically, Payne perished in a flying accident in 1919. He remains Swaziland’s all‑time top‑scoring ace.

7 Alexander De Seversky: Georgia

Alexander de Seversky was born in Georgia while it was still part of the Russian Empire. His father introduced him to aviation, and when World War I erupted, de Seversky joined the navy and soon began training as a naval aviator. On his inaugural mission he attacked a German destroyer but was shot down by anti‑aircraft fire, sustaining a leg injury that led to amputation.

Undeterred, within a year he returned to combat, becoming a skilled fighter pilot who amassed 13 kills—making him one of Russia’s top aviators and the premier Russian naval ace, all while flying with an artificial limb. After the war he stayed in the aviation industry, championing strategic air power. Emigrating to the United States, he patented a groundbreaking bomb‑sight for the Air Force, using the proceeds to launch his own aircraft manufacturing firm.

His company designed the all‑metal P‑35 monoplane in the lead‑up to World War II. However, board members ousted him, and the firm reorganized as Republic Aviation, later producing the iconic P‑47 Thunderbolt—derived from de Seversky’s P‑35 design. Throughout WWII, the P‑47 proved vital to the Allied effort. Despite his removal, de Seversky remained an outspoken advocate for strategic air power and helped shape the United States Strategic Air Command.

6 Clive Brewster‑Joske: Fiji

Clive Brewster‑Joske was born in Fiji before World War I, when the islands were still a British colony. Though his family originated from Australia, he spent his entire life in Fiji. He entered military service at the outset of the war, initially serving in the infantry before transitioning to aviation after a stint as an observer gunner on reconnaissance aircraft. Once assigned a Sopwith Pup fighter, Brewster‑Joske quickly logged six kills, raising his total to eight.

Following the war, Brewster‑Joske emerged as a prominent Fijian figure, acting as a consultant to various governments worldwide. He recognized the strategic importance of civil aviation, championing governmental investment in the sector. Throughout the interwar years he continued his military career, eventually serving with the Australian Air Corps during World War II. His influence cemented him as Fiji’s most notable and impactful aviator.

5 Constantin Cantacuzino: Romania

Constantin Cantacuzino earned the moniker “the prince of aces,” tracing his lineage to a noble medieval Romanian family. From an early age he adored airplanes, later mastering ice hockey before turning to flight, where he proved a natural talent. In 1939 he won Romania’s national aerobatics contest and became chief pilot for the air‑transport company LARES.

When World War II erupted, Cantacuzino joined the Romanian Air Force and began engaging Soviet forces. He swiftly rose among Romania’s elite pilots. In one notable mission, he and his wingman confronted ten enemy fighters while escorting Romanian bombers. After his wingman was forced to withdraw, Cantacuzino single‑handedly held the line, downing two adversaries. Early in the conflict he also conducted unauthorized night raids against Soviet bombers, despite flying a Bf‑109 not equipped for nocturnal missions—an act that convinced German commanders of his apparent madness.

In 1944, Romania switched sides, and Cantacuzino started targeting the Luftwaffe. Allied commanders later tasked him with ferrying a newly liberated high‑ranking American POW from Romania to Foggia, Italy. After landing in Foggia, his aircraft could not be refueled, so he commandeered a U.S. Mustang and returned to Romania, dazzling onlookers with an impromptu aerobatic display. He survived the war with 43 confirmed kills.

4 Marmaduke ‘Pat’ Pattle: South Africa

Marmaduke “Pat” Pattle entered the Royal Air Force in 1936, at a time when South Africa remained part of the British Commonwealth. After completing training, he was posted to Egypt, where he was stationed when World War II broke out. His first combat experience came in Libya against Italian forces, flying the agile Gloster Gladiator biplane, which allowed him to notch his initial kills.

Following the Italian campaign, Pattle transferred to Greece, eventually becoming a squadron commander. In 1940 he was promoted to flight commander and remained in that role until his death. While serving in Greece, he engaged the Luftwaffe and rapidly accumulated a substantial kill count. Though respected for his skill, Pattle was not universally liked; he was notoriously strict, demanding proper grooming and attire from his pilots.

On 20 April 1941—Hitler’s birthday—Pattle claimed six victories early in the day despite suffering from influenza and a high fever. Defying orders, he continued to fly. During his third sortie, his formation encountered a group of German Bf‑110 heavy fighters; two enemy aircraft latched onto his tail, and his plane exploded under fire, crashing into the sea. At the time of his death he had 50 confirmed kills, making him the highest‑scoring British Commonwealth ace of the war and the top ace ever to fly the Gladiator and Hurricane.

3 Spiro ‘Steve’ Pisanos: Greece

Born in Athens, Spiro “Steve” Pisanos nurtured a passion for aviation from a young age. In 1938 he immigrated to the United States, hoping one day to become a pilot. When World War II erupted, he volunteered to serve with the Royal Air Force—since the United States had not yet entered the conflict. Although still a Greek citizen, Pisanos joined the American Number 71 Eagle Squadron, conducting low‑level attack raids against Germany.

After the United States entered the war, the Eagle Squadron was integrated into the U.S. Army Air Forces. As a goodwill gesture, the U.S. granted citizenship to the six foreign nationals serving in the unit, including Pisanos. He became a double ace, tallying ten kills after downing four enemy aircraft on 5 May 1944. However, on the return flight his engine failed due to faulty spark plugs, forcing an emergency crash‑landing in occupied France.

As his aircraft descended, Pisanos attempted to bail out by climbing onto the wing, but his harness snagged on the cockpit. He managed to free himself, re‑entered the cockpit, and tried again, only to be too late. The plane crashed, sending Pisanos airborne. Miraculously he survived, but German soldiers opened fire on the downed pilot. He evaded capture with the help of French Resistance members, who sheltered him until Paris was liberated. Pisanos remained in the Air Force until retirement, eventually flying supersonic jets. He is still alive today, sharing his extraordinary story.

2 Karel Kuttelwascher: Czechoslovakia

In 1934 Karel Kuttelwascher earned his wings with the Czechoslovak Air Force. When his homeland fell to the Germans, he escaped to Poland and subsequently to France, where he and other Czech pilots enlisted in the French Foreign Legion to continue the fight. As France collapsed, Kuttelwascher fled across the Channel to England and joined the Royal Air Force.

By 1942 his squadron was assigned a novel mission type called “night intrusion,” involving single‑aircraft attacks on German bombers over their own airfields. These missions were perilously demanding, requiring exceptional eyesight and navigation over hostile territory. Kuttelwascher flew a Hurricane lacking radar, quickly proving himself an outstanding night‑intrusion pilot; his aircraft earned the nickname “Night Reaper.”

Later that year his unit received de Havilland Mosquito fighters, but he did not record any kills with the new type. In October 1942 he transferred away from frontline duty and spent the remainder of the war in a maintenance squadron. He finished the conflict with 18 kills, making him the premier RAF night‑intrusion pilot, the top Czech fighter ace, and the sixth‑best British night‑fighter pilot—an impressive feat given his aircraft’s lack of radar.

1 Ilmari Juutilainen: Finland

Most people are unaware of the Finnish fighter aces who battled the Soviet Union during the Continuation War (1941‑1944). These pilots flew outdated, under‑armed fighters yet became a nightmare for Soviet airmen. The most celebrated among them was Ilmari Juutilainen, Finland’s all‑time top‑scoring ace.

Juutilainen claimed his first victories on a Fokker D.XXI during the earlier Winter War of 1939. Throughout the Continuation War Finnish pilots primarily flew the Brewster Buffalo—an aircraft dismissed by major air forces as ineffective. Nonetheless, Finnish crews mastered the bulky fighter, and Juutilainen built an impressive kill record, sometimes downing as many as six enemy planes in a single sortie. A tactical genius, he avoided needless risks; on one occasion he considered attacking a surfaced Soviet submarine but wisely withdrew when he judged the odds unfavorable.

Later in the war his squadron received modern German Bf‑109 fighters, with which he achieved the majority of his kills, though he is best remembered for his exploits in the Buffalo. Throughout his career Juutilainen refused a commission, fearing it would remove him from the cockpit. When hostilities ceased, he logged 94 confirmed kills—though he claimed 120—and his aircraft never sustained a hit from enemy fire.

For more captivating stories from a physics student turned writer, visit Zachery Brasier’s blog at zacherybrasier.com.

When you think of the skies over Europe during World War I, the name 10 german world instantly conjures the legendary Red Baron. Yet, Germany produced a cadre of aerial warriors whose skill and daring rivaled, and sometimes eclipsed, Manfred von Richthofen. Below, we count down the ten most formidable German aces, each a soaring legend in his own right.

10 german world: A Quick Overview

10 Max Immelmann

The iconic Max Immelmann earned the distinction of being Germany’s inaugural ace. He also became the first pilot to receive the nation’s highest honor, the Pour le Mérite, later nicknamed “The Blue Max” in his honor. Born in September 1890, Immelmann re‑enlisted as a pilot at the outbreak of war after an earlier stint as a 14‑year‑old cadet and a brief period of study.

Assigned initially to ferry supplies and mail between aerodromes, Immelmann was awarded the Iron Cross, Second Class, for skillfully landing a heavily damaged aircraft within German territory. His first confirmed kill arrived on 1 August 1915, when he shot down one of ten British planes assaulting the Douai aerodrome, earning him the Iron Cross, First Class.

In October 1915, Immelmann single‑handedly shielded the French city of Lille from Allied air attacks, a deed that won him the moniker “Adler von Lille” (the Eagle of Lille) among the German populace. During an encounter over Lille he met the duo of Captain O’Hara Wood and Ira Jones in a BE‑2c; after they lost their gun, they escaped unharmed only because Immelmann ran out of ammunition. By January 1916, after his eighth victory, he became Germany’s first ace and received the Pour le Mérite.

On 18 June 1916, the Eagle of Lille met his demise. As with many aces, the exact cause remains debated: Allied claims attribute his loss to Lieutenant G.R. McCubbin and his gunner in an FE‑2, while German reports suggest he fell victim to friendly anti‑aircraft fire. Historians credit Immelmann with 15 victories, though some sources argue for 17.

9 Oswald Boelcke

Few figures in wartime lore command respect from both sides, yet Oswald Boelcke is one such individual. He entered the army in 1914 as an observer alongside his brother Wilhelm, soon transferring to a fighter squadron (Section 62) where he notched his first kill in August 1915. A friendship and rivalry blossomed with Max Immelmann.

In January 1916, Boelcke recorded his eighth victory on the same day as Immelmann, becoming Germany’s second ace and, together with Immelmann, the first to receive the Pour le Mérite. After Immelmann’s death in June, the Kaiser ordered Boelcke to refrain from flying for a month to prevent another loss. Grounded, he championed reforms that reshaped the Imperial Army Air Service, advocating formation fighting over solo sorties and paving the way for the Jasta units. As commander of the newly formed Jasta 2, he selected the trio of Manfred von Richthofen, Hans Reimann, and Erwin Boehme as his subordinates.

Boelcke’s combat record was matched by a reputation for chivalry. Shortly after his first victory, he rescued a French boy drowning near a German aerodrome, earning the Prussian Lifesaving Medal—an honor the boy’s parents attempted, unsuccessfully, to have recognized with the French Legion d’Honneur. Another notable episode occurred in January 1916 when he downed two British flyers; later, while visiting one of the wounded pilots in hospital, he was entrusted with a letter that he delivered behind enemy lines under heavy fire.

Tragically, Boelcke perished on 28 October 1916 when his aircraft collided with that of Erwin Boehme. At the time, the 25‑year‑old led German aces with 40 victories. Beyond his combat achievements, Boelcke authored the seminal Dicta Boelcke, the first text to codify basic aerial combat tactics. His legacy endured, with protégés—especially the Red Baron—holding him in the highest esteem.

8 Lothar Von Richthofen

Often remembered solely as the younger sibling of the Red Baron, Lothar von Richthofen carved out a formidable reputation of his own. Born two years after Manfred, he began his military career as a cavalry officer before earning his wings in 1915. Initially serving as an observer with Jasta 23, he transferred to Jasta 11 in 1917, the very squadron his brother commanded.

After claiming his first victory on 28 March, Lothar rapidly emerged from his brother’s shadow, amassing 24 victories in just six weeks. Among these was a disputed claim over famed ace Albert Ball. He received the Pour le Mérite on 14 May. Known among peers for an aggressive fighting style, Lothar spent as much time in hospital beds as he did in the cockpit. Following a further convalescence, he returned to the front only to be shot down on 12 August 1918, ending his combat career.

Post‑war, Lothar briefly worked on a farm before becoming a commercial pilot. He met his death in a flying accident in July 1922. Credited with 40 victories, the younger Richthofen might have achieved legendary status had he adopted a more cautious approach to combat.

7 Ernst Udet

The tragic arc of Ernst Udet, the highest‑scoring German ace to survive World War I, stands in stark contrast to his adventurous life. Struggling to join the army due to his stature, the Frankfurt native entered the volunteer motorcyclist program at 18. By 1915 he had transferred to the German Air Service, initially performing observer duties before moving to Flieger Abteilung 68, where he secured his first kill on 18 March 1916, taking on 22 enemy aircraft and earning the Iron Cross, First Class.

In early 1917, while stationed at Champagne opposite the French squadron led by Georges Guynemer, Udet encountered his rival in a fierce aerial duel. Though his gun jammed, Guynemer, recognizing Udet’s plight, simply waved and spared him. Over the next year, Udet rose to command several squadrons, including a flying circus, and increased his tally to 16 victories, receiving the Pour le Mérite in early 1918.

After a brief sickness leave, he returned to lead Jasta 4, adorning his Fokker D VII with the words Lo (in honor of his girlfriend Lola Zink) and du doch nicht (“certainly not you”) to mock Allied pilots. He pushed his total to 62 by the war’s end, shooting down 27 aircraft in September alone.

Following the conflict, Udet achieved fame as a movie star, author, and international air‑show performer. In 1934 he joined the Luftwaffe, eventually attaining the rank of colonel general. However, pressure from Hermann Göring over Germany’s dwindling air victories led to a mental breakdown; on 17 November 1941, he took his own life with a pistol. The Nazis later claimed he died testing a new weapon, portraying him as a martyr.

6 Erich Lowenhardt

Before volunteering for the German air service in 1916, Erich Lowenhardt earned the Iron Cross, First Class, for bravery as an infantryman a year earlier. After a brief stint as an observer, he transferred to Jasta 10 in early 1917, quickly establishing a reputation that earned him squadron leadership. In November 1917, Lowenhardt escaped a serious crash unhurt when his aircraft was struck by anti‑aircraft fire.

He received the Pour le Mérite after reaching 24 victories by May 1918. Engaged in a friendly competition with Ernst Udet and Lothar von Richthofen, he was appointed to head one of the flying circuses in June 1918. By August, he joined the exclusive trio of German pilots—alongside the Red Baron and Udet—who surpassed 50 aerial victories.

On 10 August, Lowenhardt’s plane collided with that of fellow German Alfred Wentz. He leapt from his aircraft, but his parachute failed to open, resulting in his death; Wentz survived. Lowenhardt is remembered as one of the war’s finest combat pilots, tallying 54 victories, roughly half of which came in the final six weeks of his life.

5 Eduard Von Schleich

In 1908, Eduard von Schleich entered the German army via the infantry. After sustaining a serious injury in late 1914, he transferred to the air service while recuperating. By 1915 he joined Feldflieger‑Abteilung 2b as a pilot and earned the Iron Cross, First Class, for completing a crucial mission despite a severely wounded arm.

Following recovery, von Schleich secured a transfer to Jasta 21 in March 1917. The squadron, previously plagued by poor performance, surged under his command. In July, after the loss of close friend Lieutenant Erich Limpert, von Schleich painted his aircraft black in Limpert’s memory, earning the nickname “The Black Knight.” His unit adopted the ominous moniker “Dead Man Squadron.” In September, the squadron went on a killing spree, downing over 40 enemy planes, 17 of which were claimed by the Black Knight himself.

After a brief sick leave, von Schleich was reassigned to Jasta 32 due to a directive that only Prussians lead Prussian units—he being Bavarian. In December, he received the Pour le Mérite after reaching 25 victories. He later commanded a flying circus and Jagdgruppe 8, comprising Jastas 23, 32, and 35, before the armistice. Finishing the war with 35 confirmed kills, he later worked briefly for Lufthansa, joined the Luftwaffe, rose to general, and died in 1947.

4 Hans‑Joachim Buddecke

In 1904, Hans‑Joachim Buddecke followed his father into the U.S. Army cadet corps. Nine years later he moved to Indianapolis after resigning from the Army, later working as a mechanic and learning to fly. When war erupted in Europe, Buddecke slipped back into Germany to join the Air Service in late 1914, initially serving as an observer before transferring to the 23rd FFA Squadron.

His first combat victory came on 19 September 1915, earning both classes of the Iron Cross after capturing the downed aircraft’s crew—Lieutenant W.H. Nixon and Captain J.N.S. Stott. He was awarded the Pour le Mérite in early 1916 for his role in the Dardanelles campaign, becoming the third pilot (after Immelmann and Boelcke) to receive the Blue Max.

Buddecke was recalled to Europe, where he first led Jasta 4 before moving to Jasta 14. He later returned to Turkey, where his successful air campaign at Gallipoli earned him the Turkish Gold Liakat Medal, and Turkish troops nicknamed him “El Schahin,” meaning “The Hunting Falcon.” After further European assignments, he was killed in combat in France on 10 March 1918 at age 27, credited with 13 aerial victories.

3 Werner Voss

Ask anyone which German ace topped the World War I charts, and the Red Baron will likely be mentioned first. Yet many historians argue that Werner Voss was equal to, if not better than, the famed Baron. Voss entered the German army via the cavalry in November 1914 at age 17, later moving to the Air Service and serving as an observer before a temporary posting to Jasta 2 in November 1916.

His first two victories on 27 November 1916 secured a permanent slot with Jasta 2. By May 1917, his 28th kill earned him the prestigious Pour le Mérite in April, catching the Red Baron’s eye, who offered him friendship, recognizing Voss as the only man who could surpass him.

Convinced by the Baron to join a flying circus, Voss added 14 more victories before meeting his end on 23 September 1917 in one of the war’s most legendary air battles.

On that fateful day, a squadron of seven British aircraft swarmed Voss. He held his own for over ten minutes before being shot down by Arthur Rhys Davids. With 48 victories at his death, Voss was described by James McCudden as the bravest German fighter pilot he ever witnessed.

2 Josef Jacobs

Josef Jacobs entered the German air service in 1914. After a brief period as a reconnaissance pilot, he achieved his first combat claim in February 1916, though it remained unconfirmed due to lack of witnesses. In October, he transferred to Jasta 22, where he secured his first confirmed kill on 23 January 1917. He logged three confirmed and eight unconfirmed victories with Jasta 22 before moving to Jasta 7, where he became commander on 2 August 1917.

Jacobs earned the Pour le Mérite after downing his 24th aircraft on 19 July 1918. Remaining with his squadron, he added 24 more victories between 13 September and 27 October, marking his final combat triumph of the war.

Living long enough to become the oldest aviation recipient of the Pour le Mérite, Jacobs died in 1978. In a revealing interview a decade before his death, he confessed that despite his lengthy service and ranking fourth among German aces (tied with Werner Voss), he never received a pension because he served only as a reserve officer.

1 Rudolf Berthold

Rudolf Berthold joined the German army in 1909 and was transferred to the air service for observation duties when the war began. He quickly moved into a fighter squadron, amassing five victories by early 1916. Berthold earned a reputation as a reckless flyer, frequently being shot down.

After a stint with Jasta 4, he commanded Jasta 14 and received the Pour le Mérite after his 12th victory. In May 1917, a crash left him with a fractured skull, pelvis, and broken nose; remarkably, he returned to combat after just three months, though never fully recovered.

Berthold was later appointed to lead Jasta 18, where an injury to his right arm rendered it useless. Undeterred, he learned to fly using only one hand, later heading a flying circus and downing 16 more aircraft before the war ended on 10 August 1918, when he was shot down again.

Nicknamed “Iron Man” by his comrades for his indomitable spirit, Berthold achieved 44 victories before the armistice. He was killed by rioters in 1920 at age 29, shot by members of the very public he had fought to protect. Some sources falsely claimed he was strangled with his own Pour le Mérite medal.

These ten daring pilots—each a master of the skies—show that the Red Baron’s legend was part of a broader tapestry of German aerial excellence during World War I.

World War II was marked with two great submarine campaigns. The German Navy used its U-boat fleet to attempt to deny Great Britain the war materials and supplies necessary for it to continue to prosecute the war. After the American entry into the war the United States Navy carried out a submarine campaign against Japan tasked with accomplishing the same goals against that island nation. Both sides practiced unrestricted submarine warfare. That meant submarines would torpedo ships of their enemies without warning.

Both the Americans and Germans produced submarine officers noted for exceptional skill and professionalism. The US Navy’s submarines sank over 5.5 million tons of Japanese shipping during the war. The German U-boats destroyed 14.1 million tons of Allied shipping over the course of the war, nearly 70% of all Allied losses for all theaters of the global conflict. Both services produced men with remarkable records of destruction inflicted on the enemy. Total ships and tonnage sunk vary according to sources, but here are the top 10 submarine aces of World War II.

10. Slade D. Cutter: 142,300 tons (21 ships)

Before he became a submarine ace in World War II, Slade Cutter starred on the football field for the US Naval Academy Midshipmen. An All-American player at Navy in the 1930s, Cutter was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967. After graduating in 1935, he served in the battleship USS Idaho. He entered the submarine service in 1936, and by 1941 was serving as the executive officer in USS Pompano. After three war patrols on the submarine he was assigned to a submarine still under construction, USS Seahorse, SS-304, as the executive officer.

After Seahorse completed its first war patrol its commanding officer was relieved for displaying a lack of aggression against the enemy. Cutter was assigned to command the vessel in October, 1943. His four war patrols led to the sinking of over 142,000 tons of Japanese shipping, including an enemy submarine I-274. Contrary to Hollywood depictions, submarine on submarine attacks during the war were relatively few in number.

Cutter remained in the Navy after the war, retiring as a Captain in 1965. For his service in World War II he received the Navy Cross, the service’s second highest award, for each of his four war patrols in Seahorse. He never reached flag rank, according to some because of his ill-concealed disdain for deskbound senior officers, including Hyman Rickover, which eliminated him for consideration for command in the emerging nuclear navy.

9. Eugene Fluckey: 179,700 tons (25 ships)

Eugene Fluckey graduated from Annapolis in 1935 and began his career in submarines in 1938. The outbreak of World War II found him serving in USS Bonita, in which he completed five war patrols before being assigned to command USS Barb, SS-220. Fluckey commanded the submarine during seven war patrols conducted between March 1944, and the end of the war in August 1945.

On one occasion, Fluckey put a party of men ashore in the Japanese home islands, charged with the destruction of a train. As commanding officer of USS Barb, Fluckey earned four Navy Crosses and the Medal of Honor. Following an attack on a Japanese convoy in 1945, Barb set a record for speed in a submarine, 23.5 knots, as he withdrew from the pursuit of Japanese destroyers. He remained in the Navy following the war, retiring as a Rear Admiral in 1972. Known as “Lucky” Fluckey, he wrote a well-received book about the war patrols aboard Barb in 1992, Thunder Below!

Fluckey commanded Barb when it became the first submarine to deploy rockets against the enemy, bombarding targets in Japan in June and July 1945. He thus helped usher in an entirely new use of the submarine in warfare. Today’s nuclear submarines carry both ballistic missiles and cruise missiles for use against targets on both land and sea.

8. Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock: 183,253 tons (25 ships)

Among the four U-boats commanded by Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock during World War II was U-96. U-96 was later the subject of the film Das Boot. During his three patrols in U-96, Lehmann-Willenbrock sank over 120,000 tons of mostly British shipping, including three troopships. Primarily operating out of the submarine pens at Brest (St. Nazaire), Lehmann-Willenbrock rose to command the 9th U-boat Flotilla. In September, 1944, as Allied troops threatened to capture Brest, Lehmann-Willenbrock assumed command of U-256 and escaped to Norway, despite the overwhelming air and naval superiority of the Allies.

Lehmann-Willenbrock surrendered to the British in 1945, who held him captive for a year before he returned to Germany. He then returned to the sea, serving in and commanding merchant vessels. When the German merchant vessel and icebreaker Otto Hahn, a nuclear powered ship, became operational in 1969, it was he who commanded. He served as a consultant during the filming of Das Boot, in which Jurgen Prochnow played the unnamed commander of U-96 during a war patrol in 1941.

Lehmann-Willenbrock served in operational U-boats throughout the war, from 1939 to 1945. That he survived is remarkable, given the casualty rates suffered by that branch of the service. He died in Bremen, the city of his birth, on April 18, 1986.

7. Herbert Schultze: 183,482 tons (28 ships)

On September 11, 1939, a German U-boat transmitted a radio message addressed to First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill. The message informed him of the sinking of the British merchant ship Firby, gave its last position, and requested they pick up survivors in the ship’s boats. A few days later the U-boat, commanded by Herbert Schultze, stopped another British vessel. He let the ship continue on its way provided it rescued the survivors from Firby and did not radio the position of his ship. It was an act of chivalry unmatched in a campaign of unrestricted submarine warfare.

Schultze commanded U-48 on eight war patrols from September, 1939, until July, 1941. After his stunning successes at sea he served in staff positions, eventually commanding the Murwik Naval School. He remained in that assignment until the war’s end. He eventually returned to active duty with the West German Navy in 1956, retiring in 1968. During his relatively brief service as an active U-boat commander he achieved one of the highest success rates of the war.

He also achieved a level of notoriety within the German high command for his complaints regarding manufacturing defects which produced numerous failures in German torpedoes. Health issues plagued Schultze as well. For whatever reason, from July 1941 through the end of the war, one of Germany’s best U-boat commanders remained ashore, an immeasurable benefit for the Allies.

6. Heinrich Liebe: 187,267 tons (34 ships)

When World War II began in September, 1939, Heinrich Liebe was one of the most experienced U-boat officers in the service. In command of U-38, he claimed his first victim on September 6. From that date until June, 1941, he sank 34 Allied ships, all of them merchantmen, reaching a total of nearly 190,000 tons.

By the summer of 1941 Liebe was among the most highly decorated German U-boat commanders. He was also among the most senior, both in time of service and rank. As more and more U-boats left German shipyards the men to command them were younger and less experienced. In July, 1941, Liebe left U-38 for a staff position with the German Naval High Command. His nine war patrols, all of which were successful, comprised a total 333 days at sea.

On average, he sank an Allied ship every ten days during an at sea war career of 21 months. On his last patrol alone, from April to June, 1941, he sank 8 ships, for over 47,000 tons. As with Heinrich Liebe, his promotion to a staff position was a blessing for the Allies.

5. Gunther Prien: 194,103 tons (31 ships)

Gunther Prien was the author of a submarine exploit of legendary proportions. In October, 1939, under orders from Rear Admiral Karl Donitz, he took his submarine into Scapa Flow, the main anchorage of the Royal Navy’s Home Fleet. There he sank the British battleship Royal Oak, which carried over 800 men to their deaths, and successfully eluded detection while escaping. When Prien returned to Germany on October 17 it was to instant celebrity.

He became the first U-boat commander to be awarded the Knight’s Cross of the Iron Cross. The German propaganda ministry called him “The Bull of Scapa Flow”. Prien had an image of a snorting bull painted on the conning tower of U-47. Even Winston Churchill acknowledged his attack as “a feat of professional skill and daring”. By February, 1941, Prien had completed 9 war patrols, with 29 ships sunk. On his tenth, Prien was lost at sea after another two sinkings to his credit. The official cause of his loss has never been determined.

Prien is a controversial character, with some calling him an unrepentant and fervid Nazi, while others claiming he supported German resistance. His war career lasted less than 18 months, making him one of the most successful submarine aces of the war.

4. Erich Topp: 197,460 tons (35 ships)

Erich Topp commanded four different U-boats during the Second World War. The first, U-57, sank after colliding with a Norwegian freighter (Norway was neutral at the time) in September, 1940. Topp had been in command just three months, and already had credit for six sinkings. He then assumed command of a new construction, U-552. On October 31, 1941, Topp and U-552 were on patrol in the North Atlantic when they encountered the US Navy destroyer Reuben James.

Although the United States was officially neutral, Topp attacked and sank Reuben James when the American ship approached the submarine. Only 44 of the 159 men aboard the destroyer survived. Reuben James was the first American ship sunk by enemy action during World War II. Later, in 1942, Topp sank several ships off the east coast of the United States, in sight of land in many cases. It was a period which the U-boat skippers called the Second Happy Time, as sinkings of Allied ships increased with America’s entry into the war.

Topp was promoted into staff jobs in late 1942, having completed nine war patrols, sinking nearly three dozen ships. He returned to command two additional U-boats in late winter, 1945, though neither completed a patrol. Post-war positions included a commission in the West German Navy and with NATO. He also served as a consultant for the computer game Silent Hunter II. He died in Germany in 2005, at the age of 91.

3. Wolfgang Luth: 221,981 tons (47 ships)

Wolfgang Luth completed his first war patrol in 1939, as First Officer under Heinrich Liebe. In December of that year Luth received command of U-9. While in command of that U-boat he attacked and sank a surfaced French submarine, Doris, off the coast of Holland. In 1940 he took command of U-138, with which his sinkings continued to increase, reaching well over 55,000 tons by autumn. Luth later commanded U-43, and later U-181. In 1943, he departed on a patrol in the Indian Ocean and along South Africa, which ultimately lasted 205 days, the second longest patrol of any submarine during World War II.

In total, Luth completed 15 war patrols, surviving depth charging by escort ships, bombing and strafing runs by enemy aircraft, and bombardment by armed merchant ships. He logged over 600 days at sea during the war. In 1944 he assumed new duties at Murwik, and he remained there when the British occupied the area in May, 1945. On the evening of May 15 he was returning to the academy after drinking heavily in local bars. A sentry called out to him to halt.

Either Luth did not hear the German sentry’s challenge or was too drunk to obey it, and the sentry shot him, once, in the head. The occupying British authorities allowed the Germans to give Luth a state funeral. The sentry was cleared of any wrongdoing by both British and German authorities.

2. Richard O’Kane: 227,824 tons (33 ships)

Richard H. O’Kane served in 10 war patrols in the Pacific during World War II. In five he was the executive officer of USS Wahoo under Dudley “Mush” Morton. Subsequently he commanded USS Tang on five more. O’Kane assumed command of Tang in October, 1943. Before the submarine sank itself via a faulty torpedo, it destroyed 33 Japanese ships. It also served as a lifeguard during aerial operations. On one such mission, Tang rescued 24 American airmen.

In October, 1944, Tang was involved in a night surface action when one of its Mark 18 torpedoes went on a circular run. Unable to evade, Tang was struck by the faulty weapon and sank. Only nine men survived, including O’Kane, and were taken prisoner by the Japanese. O’Kane was held for a time at Ofuna, without notification to the Red Cross he was a prisoner. Later he was transferred to the Omoru Prisoner of War Camp. Among his fellow prisoners was Greg “Pappy” Boyington of the Black Sheep Squadron.

Richard O’Kane remained in the Navy following the war, retiring in 1957. Among the many legends surrounding his career is his prowess at the game of cribbage. O’Kane is said to have once scored a 29 in one hand, against odds of more than 200,000 to one. His personal cribbage board (though not the board on which the score was recorded, which went down with Tang) is assigned to the wardroom of the oldest attack submarine in the US fleet to this day.

1. Otto Kretschmer: 274,333 tons (44 ships)

Otto Kretschmer reigns as the “Ace of Aces” for submarine warfare. His career of destruction in the Atlantic began in 1939. His early patrols were short in number of days at sea, and relatively unsuccessful. By early 1940 he had developed his preferred means of attack. Kretschmer chose to attack while surfaced whenever possible, at night, and by firing just one torpedo at each target rather than salvoes. In April 1940, Kretschmer took command of U-99. When possible, he took U-99 inside the enemy convoys, allowing him to attack in any direction before diving the boat to escape.

In December, 1940, Kretschmer completed his 15th war patrol. In March 1941, he attacked a convoy escorted by British destroyers. It was part of the same action which cost the Germans Gunther Prien. Kretschmer’s attacks sank five ships and forced the abandonment of another, which was destroyed by the escorts, but the severity of the British depth charging forced Kretschmer to surface his ship, signal it was sinking, and order his crew to abandon ship. U-99 was scuttled by the Germans, and Kretschmer became a prisoner of war.After being held in Britain for some time for interrogation he spent the rest of the war in a prisoner of war camp in Canada. He was released on December 31, 1947, and returned to West Germany. In 1955 he joined the West German Navy. He worked with NATO, retiring in 1970 with the rank of admiral. Ironically, Otto Kretschmer died following an accident on a boat, where he fell down some steep steps, suffering fatal injuries. He was 86, on a cruise celebrating his 50th wedding anniversary.