Although most people know of massive empires like Rome or the Ottoman Empire, there are dozens of smaller realms that slipped through the cracks of mainstream history. These 10 forgotten kingdoms played pivotal roles in their eras, yet today they linger only in the footnotes of textbooks.
10 720
The Visigoths, a wandering Germanic tribe, rose to prominence across Europe during the twilight of Roman authority. Renowned for their martial prowess, they also harbored ambitions beyond mere plunder, eventually establishing a kingdom—often called the Visigoth Kingdom of Toulouse—that stretched from southern Spain into parts of modern‑day France.
After the infamous sack of Rome in 410, the Romans, wary of provoking further barbarian aggression, granted the Visigoths permission to settle and create a polity of their own. The fledgling kingdom quickly expanded, pushing back the Alans and the Vandals as it consolidated its hold on the Iberian Peninsula.
The settlement agreement stipulated that the Visigoths would render military assistance to Rome whenever called upon. While the Visigoths were the founding force, a coalition of other tribes soon joined, forging a formidable alliance that bolstered the kingdom’s strength.
However, the Visigoths soon clashed with the neighboring Frankish peoples, who drove them out of France and assassinated their ruler in 507. Internal divisions grew as factions pledged allegiance to the papacy, weakening cohesion and leaving the kingdom vulnerable to the Muslim incursions that finally toppled it in 711.
Even though the Visigoth Kingdom has faded from popular memory, its existence was instrumental in the collapse of Roman power and it smoothed the path for the subsequent Muslim conquest of Spain.
9 1093
When Roman authority evaporated from the British Isles, a power vacuum erupted, giving rise to new polities. In southern Scotland, the Kingdom of Strathclyde emerged as a dominant force, shaping the early medieval landscape of the British archipelago.
Historical evidence shows Strathclyde controlled the southern Scottish lowlands, and its monarchs prioritized preserving a stable civilization. Consequently, life during the early Dark Ages in Strathclyde was comparatively prosperous when contrasted with the turmoil elsewhere in Europe.
Unfortunately, the Viking age brought a formidable threat. In the late 800s, Norse raiders laid siege to the kingdom’s stronghold at Dumbarton, and after a grueling four‑month blockade, the Vikings captured the Strathclyde king.
Over the next century, Strathclyde oscillated between periods of independence and subjugation by neighboring Scottish realms, steadfastly refusing to merge with England. Ultimately, William the Conqueror annexed the territory in 1092, folding Strathclyde into English dominion, yet its legacy of regional stability endured long after Rome’s fall.
8 651
Before Islam reshaped the Middle East, the region was a chessboard of competing empires, each vying for supremacy. Among them, the Sasanian Empire stands out as a largely overlooked powerhouse, distinguished by its Zoroastrian faith and status as the final great pre‑Islamic empire in what is now Iran.
The Sasanians rose to fill the void left by the Parthian collapse, forging an unmistakably Iranian state. Central to their identity was the adoption of Zoroastrianism as the official religion, a monotheistic tradition rooted in the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster, which they guarded zealously to preserve Iranian cultural purity.
During their brief but impactful existence, the Sasanians commanded the majority of the Middle East and even portions of Egypt, compelling diverse religious communities to coexist under their rule. Their reign marked the apex of Zoroastrian statecraft.
The empire pursued aggressive territorial expansion, pushing northward into Armenia and beyond. However, relentless wars with the Byzantine Empire and overextension strained their resources, precipitating a gradual decline.
When the rapidly expanding Muslim forces surged, the Sasanian Empire crumbled within five years, its lands absorbed into the nascent Islamic caliphate. Over subsequent centuries, the once‑Zoroastrian populace largely converted to Islam, sealing the empire’s disappearance from the historical stage.
7 1716
Aragon stood as a resilient kingdom that eventually commanded vast swaths of the Mediterranean. Unlike many contemporary realms, it functioned as a composite monarchy—a confederation of territories under a single sovereign.
In 1137, the union of Catalonia with the dynastic Kingdom of Aragon birthed a new political entity. The kingdom swiftly expanded, annexing large portions of Spain and later extending its influence into southern Italy and numerous Mediterranean islands.
At its zenith, Aragon’s dominion encompassed its original Spanish heartland, a substantial segment of southern Italy, and key islands across the sea. This expansive reach laid the groundwork for the modern Spanish state, with Aragon playing a central role through the 13th and 14th centuries before gradually losing momentum.
The War of the Spanish Succession in the early 1700s ushered in centralized Spanish rule, curtailing Aragon’s autonomy. Although it lingered as a semi‑autonomous region for another century, the kingdom was fully integrated into Spain during the early 19th century, ending its independent saga.
6 AD 1279
The Chola dynasty, one of the longest‑lasting lineages on the Indian subcontinent, governed large swathes of southern India for roughly fifteen centuries. Their prominence truly blossomed in the ninth century when they re‑emerged as a dominant maritime and military power.
Under the reign of King Rajaraja I, the Cholas expanded to their greatest territorial extent, earning widespread prestige among rival Indian kingdoms. Their naval strength enabled them to project influence far beyond the Indian Ocean.
At the height of their power, Chola sway stretched from the Indian mainland to the Maldives, with numerous South Asian islands falling under direct rule or tributary status. Their merchants also ventured to distant markets in China and the Middle East, establishing a vibrant trade network.
Nevertheless, the dynasty’s military prowess waned over time. Repeated assaults from neighboring Indian states eroded their holdings, prompting the Cholas to retreat and focus on consolidating the east‑coastal region.
In the 13th century, the Hoysala kingdom made significant incursions, and internal fragmentation allowed the Pandyan forces to seize control, ultimately ending the Chola dynasty’s remarkable run.
5 1461
When the Byzantine Empire fractured, a mosaic of successor states emerged, and the Empire of Trebizond proved the longest‑lasting yet most overlooked of these offshoots. Its strategic position on the Black Sea reshaped regional trade and military dynamics throughout its existence.
Although modest in size, Trebizond boasted direct access to Black Sea routes. Founded in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, its rulers were members of the former Byzantine aristocracy, granting them control over established trade infrastructures.
Even after the Byzantine restoration, Trebizond maintained independence, dominating Black Sea commerce and acting as a vital conduit between East and Europe.
As Muslim forces expanded across the Middle East, Trebizond allied with other Asian powers to challenge the rising Ottoman Empire. The conflict proved disastrous; the Ottomans retaliated fiercely, and Trebizond was finally annexed in 1461.
4 1783
The colossal Mongol Golden Horde eventually splintered, giving rise to smaller polities, one of which was the Crimean Khanate. Settling in Crimea, the Tatars broke away from the Horde and forged an independent realm.
Early on, the fledgling khanate recognized the formidable Ottoman Empire as a looming adversary. Within a few years, the Ottomans launched a campaign, defeated the Crimeans, yet allowed them to persist as a semi‑independent vassal.
Throughout most of its history, the Crimean Khanate waged frequent wars against Muscovite Russia, at times seizing Russian territories and orchestrating a large‑scale slave trade that supplied the Ottoman market.
Eventually, Muscovy grew stronger, declared independence from Tatar domination, and gradually challenged Crimean authority.
In the late 18th century, Russian forces finally conquered the khanate, annexing Crimea and ending its centuries‑long autonomy—a legacy that still echoes in today’s geopolitical disputes over the peninsula.
3 1540, 1555–1857
In the 16th century, the Turkic prince Babur, having lost his Central Asian stronghold, turned his sights toward India. Gathering forces in Kabul, he launched a successful invasion of northern India in 1526, establishing the Mughal Empire.
Babur’s son Humayun succeeded him but soon lost the empire to Afghan invaders, resulting in a fifteen‑year interregnum where the Mughals were displaced.
Humayun managed to reclaim his throne amid Indian civil unrest, but his reign was cut short when he tragically fell down a flight of stone stairs, passing the mantle to his teenage son Akbar.
Akbar, despite his youth, revitalized the empire, expanding its territories and ushering in an era of cultural flourishing, epitomized by architectural marvels like the Taj Mahal.
However, by the 18th century, the Mughal Empire’s power waned due to fiscal strain and internal religious strife. The British East India Company capitalized on this weakness, eventually assuming control, and the British Crown’s direct rule marked the end of the Mughal dynasty.
2 750
The Merovingian dynasty comprised a succession of Frankish kings who, during their reign, dominated large portions of Europe and are often regarded as the first monarchs of what would become France.
Under the founder Merovech, the Franks vanquished rival Germanic tribes, incorporating their lands into a burgeoning Frankish realm. Over time, the dynasty evolved into a “kingdom of kingdoms,” where each sub‑kingdom retained its own ruler but remained answerable to the Merovingian head.
While this structure promised unity, it also sparked incessant civil wars among the various branches, leading to a culture where conflict became routine and governance was shaped by perpetual warfare.
In 613, King Chlothar II managed to reunite the fragmented territories, reinforcing the Merovingian presence as a major European power. Yet continuous strife eroded royal authority, ushering in a period of decline.
Chlothar II’s successor, Dagobert I, wielded the Merovingian army against Slavic pagans to the east and pressed into Spain, achieving the dynasty’s greatest territorial extent. Eventually, the dynasty’s power waned, with real authority shifting to the mayors of the palace, culminating in Pepin the Middle’s ascension and the eventual end of Merovingian rule.
1 795
When most hear “Lithuania,” they picture a modest Baltic nation, yet between the 13th and 18th centuries the Grand Duchy of Lithuania stood as one of Europe’s most formidable powers. Initially a loose collection of tribes, the realm coalesced under King Mindaugas into a unified state.
From there, Lithuanian forces spread eastward, conquering territories from the Baltic coast down to the Black Sea, encompassing large swaths of present‑day Ukraine and Russia.
A pivotal moment arrived with the Union of Krewo, wherein the Grand Duke converted to Catholicism, allowing a dynastic marriage with Poland and forging a powerful alliance that amplified Lithuania’s influence.
Nevertheless, a succession of weak Grand Dukes eventually ceded real power to Polish monarchs, and the two states later separated, leaving Lithuania to contend with Muscovite and Tatar pressures on multiple fronts.
These sustained wars stretched Lithuanian resources thin, prompting gradual territorial loss. Though Poland later attempted to reunite with Lithuania to safeguard independence, the eventual Russian annexation erased Lithuanian sovereignty, yet the duchy’s legacy as a medieval superpower endures.
Zachery Brasier likes to write.