When you think of the Ancient world, you probably think of Egypt, Babylon, various Chinese dynasties, and of course Greece and Rome. But the Ancient world was a lot bigger, and longer lasting, than you might be aware. Let’s take a look at some of the other ancient peoples that deserve a lot more recognition than they typically get.
10. Muisca Confederation
Located in modern-day Colombia, the Muisca Confederation was a group of chieftains in the central Andean highlands, active during the period leading up to the Spanish conquest in the early 16th century. Unlike centralized empires like the Incas, the Muisca didn’t have a single ruler but were rather a collection of various chiefdoms, each governed by its own chieftain, or “zipa.”
Economically, they were reknown for their expertise in metallurgy, especially in crafting intricate gold and tumbaga objects. This craftsmanship led to the legend of El Dorado, which you’re almost certainly more familiar with. It’s believed the legend was inspired by the Muisca ritual of the new zipa covering himself in gold dust and diving into Lake Guatavita, offering treasures to the gods.
Agriculture was also vital, as it was with everyone, with the Muisca cultivating crops such as maize, potatoes, and beans in terraced fields. They traded extensively with neighboring groups, making their lands an important regional hub. Sadly, with the arrival of the Spanish in the 1530s, the Muisca Confederation faced diseases, conquest, and cultural disruption. They weren’t the only ones to endure that, of course – but they never received as much attention as the Aztecs, Incas, or Mayans.
9. Dilmun Civilization
The Dilmun Civilization is one of the ancient world’s more enigmatic and lesser-known cultures, flourishing between the 3rd and 1st millennia BCE. Often referred to as the “Land of the Living” in Sumerian writings, Dilmun was strategically situated along trade routes in the Persian Gulf, primarily corresponding to present-day Bahrain and parts of eastern Saudi Arabia.
Acting as a vital trade conduit between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, the Dilmun thrived on commerce and played a significant role in the distribution of goods such as copper, ivory, and precious stones. The civilization’s prosperity is evident in its cities, marked by well-planned urban centers, advanced irrigation systems, and impressive temples. Yet despite this, they’ve been largely swept under the rug while other ancient Middle Eastern civilizations are still referenced and studied.
Religiously, Dilmun was considered sacred in the ancient Sumerian myth of Enki and Ninhursag, portraying it as a paradise where sickness and death were unknown. Additionally, archaeological evidence indicates that the region had extensive burial mounds, suggesting that Dilmun was a significant burial and ceremonial site for the broader region.
8. Elam
The Elamite civilization, simply known as Elam, was one of the earliest established cultures of the ancient Near East. Nestled primarily in what is present-day southwestern Iran, the history of Elam stretches back to around 3000 BCE, making it a contemporary of early Mesopotamian civilizations.
The Elamites had their own language, Elamite, but its origins and affiliations remain something of a mystery, as it’s strangely unrelated to surrounding Semitic and Indo-European languages. Over its long history, Elam had periods of power and prominence, especially during its conflicts and interactions with the neighboring Mesopotamian powers, such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Babylonians. They even succeeded in sacking the great city of Ur in 2004 BCE.
Although Elam faced numerous invasions and periods of domination by powers like the Assyrians and Persians, it always retained a degree of autonomy until it was ultimately absorbed into the Persian Empire. Still, despite this proud legacy and surprising accomplishments, there aren’t that many folks who’ve heard of them.
7. Olmec Civilization
Often hailed as the “Mother Culture” of Mesoamerica, The Olmec civilization, emerged around 1400 BCE and thrived until around 400 BCE, in the tropical lowlands of what’s now Mexico.
The Olmecs are probably more well known for their colossal stone heads than anything else —massive carved representations of human faces, believed (but not confirmed) to be portraits of rulers or significant individuals. These sculptures, some weighing up to 40 tons, showcase intricate craftsmanship and are a testament to the Olmec’s advanced stone-working skills.
Centers of Olmec culture included the cities of San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. Not unlike other ancient civilizations in the region, the Olmec built their cities around ceremonial centers, pyramidal structures, and surprisingly complex urban planning. Besides their architectural accomplishments, the Olmec are also notable for their contributions to the Mesoamerican calendar, writing system, and the concept of the number zero. Their religious beliefs, involving a pantheon of gods associated with natural elements and jaguars, heavily influenced the Mayan and Aztec religions that followed.
While the reasons for the Olmec civilization’s decline remain a subject of debate among scholars, their influence persisted. But they deserve more attention than they often get.
6. Norte Chico Civilization
Also known as the Caral-Supe civilization, the Norte Chico civilization stands as one of the earliest and most enigmatic of ancient cultures in the Americas. Emerging around 3000 BCE and flourishing until 1800 BCE in areas of what’s now Peru, they predate the Olmec of Mesoamerica, making it the single oldest known civilization in the Americas.
Remarkably, the Norte Chico achieved its civilizational status without the presence of ceramics, which are often associated with ancient societies. That’s impressive enough, but, they’re also notable for substantial architectural prowess, most notably their step pyramids and sunken circular plazas. The city of Caral is the most studied and is often referred to as the “oldest city in the New World.”
One of the most intriguing aspects of the Norte Chico civilization is its reliance on maritime resources. Instead of depending primarily on agriculture, like many of their peers, they took maximum advantage of the nearby eastern Pacific.
We’re still not sure why the Norte Chico civilization declined. But we do know they laid foundational cultural practices that influenced the subsequent Andean cultures that are more widely known, like the Moche and Inca.
5. Hittite Empire
The Hittites, an ancient Anatolian people, emerged as a dominant power in the Middle East around 1600 BCE, establishing an empire that spanned throughout modern-day Turkey and northern Syria. Their influence would last until roughly 1200 BCE. But despite that, you probably know a lot less about them than you do about contemporary empires like Egypt.
The Hittite capital, Hattusa, located near modern-day Bo?azkale in Turkey, was a sprawling city with grand temples, palaces, and impressive fortifications. The city stands as a testament to their architectural and urban planning skills. But the empire’s strength wasn’t just architectural; they had an organized and efficient bureaucracy, as well as a robust legal system with laws that were actually pretty progressive for their time, covering a range of issues from inheritance and divorce and consumer protection.
Militarily, the Hittites are particularly renowned for their chariots, which played a crucial role in their confrontations with neighboring states. The most famous of these conflicts was the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BCE against the Egyptians under Pharaoh Ramses II. While both sides claimed victory, the battle’s aftermath led to one of the earliest known peace treaties in history, signifying a truce between the two superpowers.
The decline of the Hittite Empire around 1200 BCE is part of a larger, mysterious collapse that affected several ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean and Near East. Despite their decline, the Hittites left an indelible mark on the region’s history and deserve to be remembered.
4. Nok Culture
Named after the village of Nok in Nigeria, where the first artifacts from this civilization were discovered in the 1920s, the Nok Culture is West Africa’s earliest known ancient civilization. Flourishing between 1500 BCE and 300 CE, they’re primarily known for their distinctive terracotta figurines, which stand as some of the earliest and finest examples of sculpture in Sub-Saharan Africa. These terracotta sculptures are diverse in representation, ranging from humanoid figures with intricate details, like beads, scarification, and elaborate hairstyles, to various animals. The purpose of these figurines is still a subject of debate among archaeologists. While some suggest they had ritualistic or religious significance, others propose they might have been used as charms or status symbols.
Beyond their artistry, there’s evidence they were smelting iron long before many other cultures in the surrounding region. This had profound implications, not only for agriculture and warfare but also for various societal advancements. Despite that advantage, the Nok disappeared abruptly around 300 CE for reasons that remain unclear. And as evidenced by their inclusion on this list, they’re largely forgotten since then.
3. Caral-Supe Civilization
The Caral-Supe civilization, often just referred to as Caral, holds the distinction of being the oldest known civilization in the Americas. Situated in the Supe Valley of modern-day Peru, it dates all the way back to around 3000 BCE, flourishing until roughly 1800 BCE. This places its rise well before other pre-Columbian cultures in the region, and it’s contemporary to ancient civilizations like Ancient Egypt and the Sumerians of Mesopotamia.
At the heart of the Caral-Supe civilization is the city of Caral, a sprawling urban center that showcases advanced city planning, impressive pyramidal architecture, and sunken circular plazas. As was the case with many ancient civilizations in the Americas, the city was dominated by a towering pyramid, covering an area nearly equivalent to four football fields.
What’s especially intriguing about Caral is its apparent lack of warfare-related artifacts. No weapons or fortifications have been found, suggesting a peaceful society that perhaps prioritized trade and religion. Instead of warfare, it appears that their society revolved around agriculture, with evidence of irrigation systems and cultivation of crops like cotton, beans, and squash. Despite that, they lasted for more than a millennium.
2. Aksumite Empire
The Aksumite Empire, often simply referred to as Aksum, was a formidable trading empire that rose to prominence in the Horn of Africa around the 1st century CE and maintained its power until the 10th century CE. Its heartland was in present-day northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, and at its zenith, its influence extended across parts of Sudan, Yemen, and even southern Arabia.
One of the significant markers of the Aksumite Empire was its impressive architectural achievements, most notably the stelae – tall, carved stone pillars, some of which are the largest single pieces of stone ever quarried in the ancient world. If that wasn’t impressive enough, they managed to position themselves as a crucial trading hub, linking the Roman Empire and later the Byzantine Empire with India and the Far East. It was through these trade networks that Aksum amassed its considerable wealth, trading goods like ivory, gold, frankincense, and myrrh.
Here’s another interesting note: the Aksumite Empire holds a special place in history as one of the first major empires to adopt Christianity. They didn’t last forever, but they left a huge imprint on subsequent cultures.
1. Xiongnu Confederation
The Xiongnu Confederation was a powerful nomadic empire that emerged around the 3rd century BCE in the steppes of Central and Eastern Asia, roughly spanning areas of modern-day Mongolia, southern Siberia, and parts of northern China. This meant that contact, and conflict, with the Han Dynasty of China, was inevitable. Their wars played a pivotal role in shaping the political and military dynamics of the region at the time.
Interestingly, these battles saw the Great Wall of China being fortified and extended to defend against Xiongnu raids. The Han Dynasty, seeking both military and diplomatic solutions, also established the famous Silk Road trade routes in part to facilitate relations with the Western regions and to form alliances against the Xiongnu.
So despite being relatively unknown today, the Xiongnu were directly involved in the formation of two of the most iconic symbols of ancient Asia.
Despite their strength and vast territorial control, though, the Xiongnu Confederation eventually faced internal divisions and external pressures, and by the late 1st century CE had split into northern and southern halves. Over time, they were assimilated into other tribal groups or subdued by emerging powers in the region.